Biochemistry, the chemistry of biological molecules, explains the complex processes that sustain all living organisms. This college-level course taught by Professor Raffi Hovasapian is perfect for Pre-Medical students as well as Biology and Chemistry majors. Each lesson contains fundamental definitions, numerous worked-out examples, and many step-by-step explanations of complex processes. Professor Hovasapian carefully goes through how Proteins, Carbohydrates, Nucleic Acids and other biomolecules make life on Earth possible. Combining his triple degrees in Mathematics, Chemistry, and Classics, along with 10+ years of teaching experience, Professor Hovasapian expertly helps students understand difficult biochemical concepts. Raffi also teaches AP Chemistry, Multivariable Calculus, and Linear Algebra on Educator.

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Table of Contents
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I. Preliminaries on Aqueous Chemistry
	Aqueous Solutions & Concentration			39:57
		Intro		0:00
		Aqueous Solutions and Concentration		0:46
			Definition of Solution	1:28
			Example: Sugar Dissolved in Water	2:19
			Example: Salt Dissolved in Water	3:04
			A Solute Does Not Have to Be a Solid	3:37
			A Solvent Does Not Have to Be a Liquid	5:02
			Covalent Compounds	6:55
			Ionic Compounds	7:39
			Example: Table Sugar	9:12
			Example: MgCl₂	10:40
			Expressing Concentration: Molarity	13:42
		Example 1		14:47
			Example 1: Question	14:50
			Example 1: Solution	15:40
			Another Way to Express Concentration	22:01
		Example 2		24:00
			Example 2: Question	24:01
			Example 2: Solution	24:49
			Some Other Ways of Expressing Concentration	27:52
		Example 3		29:30
			Example 3: Question	29:31
			Example 3: Solution	31:02
	Dilution & Osmotic Pressure			38:53
		Intro		0:00
		Dilution		0:45
			Definition of Dilution	0:46
			Example 1: Question	2:08
			Example 1: Basic Dilution Equation	4:20
			Example 1: Solution	5:31
			Example 2: Alternative Approach	12:05
		Osmotic Pressure		14:34
			Colligative Properties	15:02
			Recall: Covalent Compounds and Soluble Ionic Compounds	17:24
			Properties of Pure Water	19:42
			Addition of a Solute	21:56
			Osmotic Pressure: Conceptual Example	24:00
			Equation for Osmotic Pressure	29:30
			Example of 'i'	31:38
			Example 3	32:50
	More on Osmosis			29:01
		Intro		0:00
		More on Osmosis		1:25
			Osmotic Pressure	1:26
			Example 1: Molar Mass of Protein	5:25
			Definition, Equation, and Unit of Osmolarity	13:13
			Example 2: Osmolarity	15:19
			Isotonic, Hypertonic, and Hypotonic	20:20
			Example 3	22:20
			More on Isotonic, Hypertonic, and Hypotonic	26:14
			Osmosis vs. Osmotic Pressure	27:56
	Acids & Bases			39:11
		Intro		0:00
		Acids and Bases		1:16
			Let's Begin With H₂O	1:17
			P-Scale	4:22
			Example 1	6:39
			pH	9:43
			Strong Acids	11:10
			Strong Bases	13:52
			Weak Acids & Bases Overview	14:32
			Weak Acids	15:49
			Example 2: Phosphoric Acid	19:30
			Weak Bases	24:50
			Weak Base Produces Hydroxide Indirectly	25:41
			Example 3: Pyridine	29:07
			Acid Form and Base Form	32:02
			Acid Reaction	35:50
			Base Reaction	36:27
			Ka, Kb, and Kw	37:14
	Titrations and Buffers			41:33
		Intro		0:00
		Titrations		0:27
			Weak Acid	0:28
			Rearranging the Ka Equation	1:45
			Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation	3:52
			Fundamental Reaction of Acids and Bases	5:36
			The Idea Behind a Titration	6:27
			Let's Look at an Acetic Acid Solution	8:44
			Titration Curve	17:00
			Acetate	23:57
		Buffers		26:57
			Introduction to Buffers	26:58
			What is a Buffer?	29:40
			Titration Curve & Buffer Region	31:44
			How a Buffer Works: Adding OH⁻	34:44
			How a Buffer Works: Adding H⁺	35:58
			Phosphate Buffer System	38:02
	Example Problems with Acids, Bases & Buffers			44:19
		Intro		0:00
		Example 1		1:21
			Example 1: Properties of Glycine	1:22
			Example 1: Part A	3:40
			Example 1: Part B	4:40
		Example 2		9:02
			Example 2: Question	9:03
			Example 2: Total Phosphate Concentration	12:23
			Example 2: Final Solution	17:10
		Example 3		19:34
			Example 3: Question	19:35
			Example 3: pH Before	22:18
			Example 3: pH After	24:24
			Example 3: New pH	27:54
		Example 4		30:00
			Example 4: Question	30:01
			Example 4: Equilibria	32:52
			Example 4: 1st Reaction	38:04
			Example 4: 2nd Reaction	39:53
			Example 4: Final Solution	41:33
	Hydrolysis & Condensation Reactions			18:45
		Intro		0:00
		Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions		0:50
			Hydrolysis	0:51
			Condensation	2:42
			Example 1: Hydrolysis of Ethyl Acetate	4:52
			Example 2: Condensation of Acetic Acid with Ethanol	8:42
			Example 3	11:18
			Example 4: Formation & Hydrolysis of a Peptide Bond Between the Amino Acids Alanine & Serine	14:56
II. Amino Acids & Proteins: Primary Structure
	Amino Acids			38:19
		Intro		0:00
		Amino Acids		0:17
			Proteins & Amino Acids	0:18
			Difference Between Amino Acids	4:20
			α-Carbon	7:08
			Configuration in Biochemistry	10:43
			L-Glyceraldehyde & Fischer Projection	12:32
			D-Glyceraldehyde & Fischer Projection	15:31
			Amino Acids in Biological Proteins are the L Enantiomer	16:50
			L-Amino Acid	18:04
			L-Amino Acids Correspond to S-Enantiomers in the RS System	20:10
			Classification of Amino Acids	22:53
		Amino Acids With Non-Polar R Groups		26:45
			Glycine	27:00
			Alanine	27:48
			Valine	28:15
			Leucine	28:58
			Proline	31:08
			Isoleucine	32:42
			Methionine	33:43
		Amino Acids With Aromatic R Groups		34:33
			Phenylalanine	35:26
			Tyrosine	36:02
			Tryptophan	36:32
	Amino Acids, Continued			27:14
		Intro		0:00
		Amino Acids With Positively Charged R Groups		0:16
			Lysine	0:52
			Arginine	1:55
			Histidine	3:15
		Amino Acids With Negatively Charged R Groups		6:28
			Aspartate	6:58
			Glutamate	8:11
		Amino Acids With Uncharged, but Polar R Groups		8:50
			Serine	8:51
			Threonine	10:21
			Cysteine	11:06
			Asparagine	11:35
			Glutamine	12:44
		More on Amino Acids		14:18
			Cysteine Dimerizes to Form Cystine	14:53
			Tryptophan, Tyrosine, and Phenylalanine	19:07
			Other Amino Acids	20:53
			Other Amino Acids: Hydroxy Lysine	22:34
			Other Amino Acids: r-Carboxy Glutamate	25:37
	Acid/Base Behavior of Amino Acids			48:28
		Intro		0:00
		Acid/Base Behavior of Amino Acids		0:27
			Acid/Base Behavior of Amino Acids	0:28
			Let's Look at Alanine	1:57
			Titration of Acidic Solution of Alanine with a Strong Base	2:51
			Amphoteric Amino Acids	13:24
			Zwitterion & Isoelectric Point	16:42
			Some Amino Acids Have 3 Ionizable Groups	20:35
			Example: Aspartate	24:44
			Example: Tyrosine	28:50
			Rule of Thumb	33:04
			Basis for the Rule	35:59
			Example: Describe the Degree of Protonation for Each Ionizable Group	38:46
			Histidine is Special	44:58
	Peptides & Proteins			45:18
		Intro		0:00
		Peptides and Proteins		0:15
			Introduction to Peptides and Proteins	0:16
			Formation of a Peptide Bond: The Bond Between 2 Amino Acids	1:44
			Equilibrium	7:53
			Example 1: Build the Following Tripeptide Ala-Tyr-Ile	9:48
			Example 1: Shape Structure	15:43
			Example 1: Line Structure	17:11
			Peptides Bonds	20:08
			Terms We'll Be Using Interchangeably	23:14
			Biological Activity & Size of a Peptide	24:58
			Multi-Subunit Proteins	30:08
			Proteins and Prosthetic Groups	32:13
			Carbonic Anhydrase	37:35
			Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structure of Proteins	40:26
	Amino Acid Sequencing of a Peptide Chain			42:47
		Intro		0:00
		Amino Acid Sequencing of a Peptide Chain		0:30
			Amino Acid Sequence and Its Structure	0:31
			Edman Degradation: Overview	2:57
			Edman Degradation: Reaction - Part 1	4:58
			Edman Degradation: Reaction - Part 2	10:28
			Edman Degradation: Reaction - Part 3	13:51
			Mechanism Step 1: PTC (Phenylthiocarbamyl) Formation	19:01
			Mechanism Step 2: Ring Formation & Peptide Bond Cleavage	23:03
		Example: Write Out the Edman Degradation for the Tripeptide Ala-Tyr-Ser		30:29
			Step 1	30:30
			Step 2	34:21
			Step 3	36:56
			Step 4	38:28
			Step 5	39:24
			Step 6	40:44
	Sequencing Larger Peptides & Proteins			62:33
		Intro		0:00
		Sequencing Larger Peptides and Proteins		0:28
			Identifying the N-Terminal Amino Acids With the Reagent Fluorodinitrobenzene (FDNB)	0:29
			Sequencing Longer Peptides & Proteins Overview	5:54
			Breaking Peptide Bond: Proteases and Chemicals	8:16
			Some Enzymes/Chemicals Used for Fragmentation: Trypsin	11:14
			Some Enzymes/Chemicals Used for Fragmentation: Chymotrypsin	13:02
			Some Enzymes/Chemicals Used for Fragmentation: Cyanogen Bromide	13:28
			Some Enzymes/Chemicals Used for Fragmentation: Pepsin	13:44
			Cleavage Location	14:04
			Example: Chymotrypsin	16:44
			Example: Pepsin	18:17
			More on Sequencing Larger Peptides and Proteins	19:29
			Breaking Disulfide Bonds: Performic Acid	26:08
			Breaking Disulfide Bonds: Dithiothreitol Followed by Iodoacetate	31:04
		Example: Sequencing Larger Peptides and Proteins		37:03
			Part 1 - Breaking Disulfide Bonds, Hydrolysis and Separation	37:04
			Part 2 - N-Terminal Identification	44:16
			Part 3 - Sequencing Using Pepsin	46:43
			Part 4 - Sequencing Using Cyanogen Bromide	52:02
			Part 5 - Final Sequence	56:48
	Peptide Synthesis (Merrifield Process)			49:12
		Intro		0:00
		Peptide Synthesis (Merrifield Process)		0:31
			Introduction to Synthesizing Peptides	0:32
			Merrifield Peptide Synthesis: General Scheme	3:03
			So What Do We Do?	6:07
			Synthesis of Protein in the Body Vs. The Merrifield Process	7:40
		Example: Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser		9:21
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reactions Overview	11:41
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reaction 1	19:34
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reaction 2	24:34
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reaction 3	27:34
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reaction 4 & 4a	28:48
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reaction 5	33:38
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reaction 6	36:45
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reaction 7 & 7a	37:44
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reaction 8	39:47
			Synthesis of Ala-Gly-Ser: Reaction 9 & 10	43:23
		Chromatography: Eluent, Stationary Phase, and Eluate		45:55
	More Examples with Amino Acids & Peptides			54:31
		Intro		0:00
		Example 1		0:22
			Data	0:23
			Part A: What is the pI of Serine & Draw the Correct Structure	2:11
			Part B: How Many mL of NaOH Solution Have Been Added at This Point (pI)?	5:27
			Part C: At What pH is the Average Charge on Serine	10:50
			Part D: Draw the Titration Curve for This Situation	14:50
			Part E: The 10 mL of NaOH Added to the Solution at the pI is How Many Equivalents?	17:35
			Part F: Serine Buffer Solution	20:22
		Example 2		23:04
			Data	23:05
			Part A: Calculate the Minimum Molar Mass of the Protein	25:12
			Part B: How Many Tyr Residues in this Protein?	28:34
		Example 3		30:08
			Question	30:09
			Solution	34:30
		Example 4		48:46
			Question	48:47
			Solution	49:50
III. Proteins: Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structure
	Alpha Helix & Beta Conformation			50:52
		Intro		0:00
		Alpha Helix and Beta Conformation		0:28
			Protein Structure Overview	0:29
			Weak interactions Among the Amino Acid in the Peptide Chain	2:11
			Two Principals of Folding Patterns	4:56
			Peptide Bond	7:00
			Peptide Bond: Resonance	9:46
			Peptide Bond: φ Bond & ψ Bond	11:22
			Secondary Structure	15:08
			α-Helix Folding Pattern	17:28
			Illustration 1: α-Helix Folding Pattern	19:22
			Illustration 2: α-Helix Folding Pattern	21:39
			β-Sheet	25:16
			β-Conformation	26:04
			Parallel & Anti-parallel	28:44
			Parallel β-Conformation Arrangement of the Peptide Chain	30:12
			Putting Together a Parallel Peptide Chain	35:16
			Anti-Parallel β-Conformation Arrangement	37:42
			Tertiary Structure	45:03
			Quaternary Structure	45:52
			Illustration 3: Myoglobin Tertiary Structure & Hemoglobin Quaternary Structure	47:13
			Final Words on Alpha Helix and Beta Conformation	48:34
IV. Proteins: Function
	Protein Function I: Ligand Binding & Myoglobin			51:36
		Intro		0:00
		Protein Function I: Ligand Binding & Myoglobin		0:30
			Ligand	1:02
			Binding Site	2:06
			Proteins are Not Static or Fixed	3:36
			Multi-Subunit Proteins	5:46
			O₂ as a Ligand	7:21
			Myoglobin, Protoporphyrin IX, Fe ²⁺, and O₂	12:54
			Protoporphyrin Illustration	14:25
			Myoglobin With a Heme Group Illustration	17:02
			Fe²⁺ has 6 Coordination Sites & Binds O₂	18:10
			Heme	19:44
			Myoglobin Overview	22:40
			Myoglobin and O₂ Interaction	23:34
			Keq or Ka & The Measure of Protein's Affinity for Its Ligand	26:46
			Defining α: Fraction of Binding Sites Occupied	32:52
			Graph: α vs. [L]	37:33
			For The Special Case of α = 0.5	39:01
			Association Constant & Dissociation Constant	43:54
			α & Kd	45:15
			Myoglobin's Binding of O₂	48:20
	Protein Function II: Hemoglobin			63:36
		Intro		0:00
		Protein Function II: Hemoglobin		0:14
			Hemoglobin Overview	0:15
			Hemoglobin & Its 4 Subunits	1:22
			α and β Interactions	5:18
			Two Major Conformations of Hb: T State (Tense) & R State (Relaxed)	8:06
			Transition From The T State to R State	12:03
			Binding of Hemoglobins & O₂	14:02
			Binding Curve	18:32
			Hemoglobin in the Lung	27:28
			Signoid Curve	30:13
			Cooperative Binding	32:25
			Hemoglobin is an Allosteric Protein	34:26
			Homotropic Allostery	36:18
			Describing Cooperative Binding Quantitatively	38:06
			Deriving The Hill Equation	41:52
			Graphing the Hill Equation	44:43
			The Slope and Degree of Cooperation	46:25
			The Hill Coefficient	49:48
			Hill Coefficient = 1	51:08
			Hill Coefficient < 1	55:55
			Where the Graph Hits the x-axis	56:11
			Graph for Hemoglobin	58:02
	Protein Function III: More on Hemoglobin			67:16
		Intro		0:00
		Protein Function III: More on Hemoglobin		0:11
			Two Models for Cooperative Binding: MWC & Sequential Model	0:12
			MWC Model	1:31
			Hemoglobin Subunits	3:32
			Sequential Model	8:00
			Hemoglobin Transports H⁺ & CO₂	17:23
			Binding Sites of H⁺ and CO₂	19:36
			CO₂ is Converted to Bicarbonate	23:28
			Production of H⁺ & CO₂ in Tissues	27:28
			H⁺ & CO₂ Binding are Inversely Related to O₂ Binding	28:31
			The H⁺ Bohr Effect: His¹⁴⁶ Residue on the β Subunits	33:31
			Heterotropic Allosteric Regulation of O₂ Binding by 2,3-Biphosphoglycerate (2,3 BPG)	39:53
			Binding Curve for 2,3 BPG	56:21
V. Enzymes
	Enzymes I			41:38
		Intro		0:00
		Enzymes I		0:38
			Enzymes Overview	0:39
			Cofactor	4:38
			Holoenzyme	5:52
			Apoenzyme	6:40
			Riboflavin, FAD, Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal Phosphate Structures	7:28
			Carbonic Anhydrase	8:45
			Classification of Enzymes	9:55
			Example: EC 1.1.1.1	13:04
			Reaction of Oxidoreductases	16:23
			Enzymes: Catalysts, Active Site, and Substrate	18:28
			Illustration of Enzymes, Substrate, and Active Site	27:22
			Catalysts & Activation Energies	29:57
			Intermediates	36:00
	Enzymes II			44:02
		Intro		0:00
		Enzymes II: Transitions State, Binding Energy, & Induced Fit		0:18
			Enzymes 'Fitting' Well With The Transition State	0:20
			Example Reaction: Breaking of a Stick	3:40
			Another Energy Diagram	8:20
			Binding Energy	9:48
			Enzymes Specificity	11:03
			Key Point: Optimal Interactions Between Substrate & Enzymes	15:15
			Induced Fit	16:25
			Illustrations: Induced Fit	20:58
		Enzymes II: Catalytic Mechanisms		22:17
			General Acid/Base Catalysis	23:56
			Acid Form & Base Form of Amino Acid: Glu &Asp	25:26
			Acid Form & Base Form of Amino Acid: Lys & Arg	26:30
			Acid Form & Base Form of Amino Acid: Cys	26:51
			Acid Form & Base Form of Amino Acid: His	27:30
			Acid Form & Base Form of Amino Acid: Ser	28:16
			Acid Form & Base Form of Amino Acid: Tyr	28:30
			Example: Phosphohexose Isomerase	29:20
			Covalent Catalysis	34:19
			Example: Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase	35:34
			Metal Ion Catalysis: Isocitrate Dehydrogenase	38:45
			Function of Mn²⁺	42:15
	Enzymes III: Kinetics			56:40
		Intro		0:00
		Enzymes III: Kinetics		1:40
			Rate of an Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction & Substrate Concentration	1:41
			Graph: Substrate Concentration vs. Reaction Rate	10:43
			Rate At Low and High Substrate Concentration	14:26
			Michaelis & Menten Kinetics	20:16
			More On Rate & Concentration of Substrate	22:46
			Steady-State Assumption	26:02
			Rate is Determined by How Fast ES Breaks Down to Product	31:36
			Total Enzyme Concentration: [Et] = [E] + [ES]	35:35
			Rate of ES Formation	36:44
			Rate of ES Breakdown	38:40
			Measuring Concentration of Enzyme-Substrate Complex	41:19
			Measuring Initial & Maximum Velocity	43:43
			Michaelis & Menten Equation	46:44
			What Happens When V₀ = (1/2) Vmax?	49:12
			When [S] << Km	53:32
			When [S] >> Km	54:44
	Enzymes IV: Lineweaver-Burk Plots			20:37
		Intro		0:00
		Enzymes IV: Lineweaver-Burk Plots		0:45
			Deriving The Lineweaver-Burk Equation	0:46
			Lineweaver-Burk Plots	3:55
			Example 1: Carboxypeptidase A	8:00
			More on Km, Vmax, and Enzyme-catalyzed Reaction	15:54
	Enzymes V: Enzyme Inhibition			51:37
		Intro		0:00
		Enzymes V: Enzyme Inhibition Overview		0:42
			Enzyme Inhibitors Overview	0:43
			Classes of Inhibitors	2:32
		Competitive Inhibition		3:08
			Competitive Inhibition	3:09
			Michaelis & Menten Equation in the Presence of a Competitive Inhibitor	7:40
			Double-Reciprocal Version of the Michaelis & Menten Equation	14:48
			Competitive Inhibition Graph	16:37
		Uncompetitive Inhibition		19:23
			Uncompetitive Inhibitor	19:24
			Michaelis & Menten Equation for Uncompetitive Inhibition	22:10
			The Lineweaver-Burk Equation for Uncompetitive Inhibition	26:04
			Uncompetitive Inhibition Graph	27:42
		Mixed Inhibition		30:30
			Mixed Inhibitor	30:31
			Double-Reciprocal Version of the Equation	33:34
			The Lineweaver-Burk Plots for Mixed Inhibition	35:02
		Summary of Reversible Inhibitor Behavior		38:00
			Summary of Reversible Inhibitor Behavior	38:01
			Note: Non-Competitive Inhibition	42:22
		Irreversible Inhibition		45:15
			Irreversible Inhibition	45:16
			Penicillin & Transpeptidase Enzyme	46:50
	Enzymes VI: Regulatory Enzymes			51:23
		Intro		0:00
		Enzymes VI: Regulatory Enzymes		0:45
			Regulatory Enzymes Overview	0:46
			Example: Glycolysis	2:27
			Allosteric Regulatory Enzyme	9:19
			Covalent Modification	13:08
			Two Other Regulatory Processes	16:28
			Allosteric Regulation	20:58
			Feedback Inhibition	25:12
			Feedback Inhibition Example: L-Threonine → L-Isoleucine	26:03
			Covalent Modification	27:26
			Covalent Modulators: -PO₃²⁻	29:30
			Protein Kinases	31:59
			Protein Phosphatases	32:47
			Addition/Removal of -PO₃²⁻ and the Effect on Regulatory Enzyme	33:36
			Phosphorylation Sites of a Regulatory Enzyme	38:38
			Proteolytic Cleavage	41:48
			Zymogens: Chymotrypsin & Trypsin	43:58
			Enzymes That Use More Than One Regulatory Process: Bacterial Glutamine Synthetase	48:59
			Why The Complexity?	50:27
	Enzymes VII: Km & Kcat			54:49
		Intro		0:00
		Km		1:48
			Recall the Michaelis–Menten Equation	1:49
			Km & Enzyme's Affinity	6:18
			Rate Forward, Rate Backward, and Equilibrium Constant	11:08
			When an Enzyme's Affinity for Its Substrate is High	14:17
			More on Km & Enzyme Affinity	17:29
			The Measure of Km Under Michaelis–Menten kinetic	23:19
		Kcat (First-order Rate Constant or Catalytic Rate Constant)		24:10
			Kcat: Definition	24:11
			Kcat & The Michaelis–Menten Postulate	25:18
			Finding Vmax and [Et}	27:27
			Units for Vmax and Kcat	28:26
			Kcat: Turnover Number	28:55
			Michaelis–Menten Equation	32:12
		Km & Kcat		36:37
			Second Order Rate Equation	36:38
			(Kcat)/(Km): Overview	39:22
			High (Kcat)/(Km)	40:20
			Low (Kcat)/(Km)	43:16
			Practical Big Picture	46:28
			Upper Limit to (Kcat)/(Km)	48:56
			More On Kcat and Km	49:26
VI. Carbohydrates
	Monosaccharides			77:46
		Intro		0:00
		Monosaccharides		1:49
			Carbohydrates Overview	1:50
			Three Major Classes of Carbohydrates	4:48
			Definition of Monosaccharides	5:46
		Examples of Monosaccharides: Aldoses		7:06
			D-Glyceraldehyde	7:39
			D-Erythrose	9:00
			D-Ribose	10:10
			D-Glucose	11:20
			Observation: Aldehyde Group	11:54
			Observation: Carbonyl 'C'	12:30
			Observation: D & L Naming System	12:54
		Examples of Monosaccharides: Ketose		16:54
			Dihydroxy Acetone	17:28
			D-Erythrulose	18:30
			D-Ribulose	19:49
			D-Fructose	21:10
			D-Glucose Comparison	23:18
			More information of Ketoses	24:50
			Let's Look Closer at D-Glucoses	25:50
		Let's Look At All the D-Hexose Stereoisomers		31:22
			D-Allose	32:20
			D-Altrose	33:01
			D-Glucose	33:39
			D-Gulose	35:00
			D-Mannose	35:40
			D-Idose	36:42
			D-Galactose	37:14
			D-Talose	37:42
		Epimer		40:05
			Definition of Epimer	40:06
			Example of Epimer: D-Glucose, D-Mannose, and D-Galactose	40:57
		Hemiacetal or Hemiketal		44:36
			Hemiacetal/Hemiketal Overview	45:00
			Ring Formation of the α and β Configurations of D-Glucose	50:52
			Ring Formation of the α and β Configurations of Fructose	61:39
		Haworth Projection		67:34
			Pyranose & Furanose Overview	67:38
			Haworth Projection: Pyranoses	69:30
			Haworth Projection: Furanose	74:56
	Hexose Derivatives & Reducing Sugars			37:06
		Intro		0:00
		Hexose Derivatives		0:15
			Point of Clarification: Forming a Cyclic Sugar From a Linear Sugar	0:16
			Let's Recall the α and β Anomers of Glucose	8:42
			α-Glucose	10:54
		Hexose Derivatives that Play Key Roles in Physiology Progression		17:38
			β-Glucose	18:24
			β-Glucosamine	18:48
			N-Acetyl-β-Glucosamine	20:14
			β-Glucose-6-Phosphate	22:22
			D-Gluconate	24:10
			Glucono-δ-Lactone	26:33
		Reducing Sugars		29:50
			Reducing Sugars Overview	29:51
			Reducing Sugars Example: β-Galactose	32:36
	Disaccharides			43:32
		Intro		0:00
		Disaccharides		0:15
			Disaccharides Overview	0:19
			Examples of Disaccharides & How to Name Them	2:49
			Disaccharides Trehalose Overview	15:46
			Disaccharides Trehalose: Flip	20:52
			Disaccharides Trehalose: Spin	28:36
			Example: Draw the Structure	33:12
	Polysaccharides			39:25
		Intro		0:00
		Recap Example: Draw the Structure of Gal(α1↔β1)Man		0:38
		Polysaccharides		9:46
			Polysaccharides Overview	9:50
			Homopolysaccharide	13:12
			Heteropolysaccharide	13:47
			Homopolysaccharide as Fuel Storage	16:23
			Starch Has Two Types of Glucose Polymer: Amylose	17:10
			Starch Has Two Types of Glucose Polymer: Amylopectin	18:04
			Polysaccharides: Reducing End & Non-Reducing End	19:30
			Glycogen	20:06
			Examples: Structures of Polysaccharides	21:42
			Let's Draw an (α1→4) & (α1→6) of Amylopectin by Hand.	28:14
			More on Glycogen	31:17
			Glycogen, Concentration, & The Concept of Osmolarity	35:16
	Polysaccharides, Part 2			44:15
		Intro		0:00
		Polysaccharides		0:17
			Example: Cellulose	0:34
			Glycoside Bond	7:25
			Example Illustrations	12:30
			Glycosaminoglycans Part 1	15:55
			Glycosaminoglycans Part 2	18:34
			Glycosaminoglycans & Sulfate Attachments	22:42
			β-D-N-Acetylglucosamine	24:49
			β-D-N-AcetylGalactosamine	25:42
			β-D-Glucuronate	26:44
			β-L-Iduronate	27:54
			More on Sulfate Attachments	29:49
			Hylarunic Acid	32:00
			Hyaluronates	39:32
			Other Glycosaminoglycans	40:46
	Glycoconjugates			44:23
		Intro		0:00
		Glycoconjugates		0:24
			Overview	0:25
			Proteoglycan	2:53
			Glycoprotein	5:20
			Glycolipid	7:25
			Proteoglycan vs. Glycoprotein	8:15
			Cell Surface Diagram	11:17
			Proteoglycan Common Structure	14:24
			Example: Chondroitin-4-Sulfate	15:06
			Glycoproteins	19:50
			The Monomers that Commonly Show Up in The Oligo Portions of Glycoproteins	28:02
			N-Acetylneuraminic Acid	31:17
			L-Furose	32:37
			Example of an N-Linked Oligosaccharide	33:21
			Cell Membrane Structure	36:35
			Glycolipids & Lipopolysaccharide	37:22
			Structure Example	41:28
	More Example Problems with Carbohydrates			40:22
		Intro		0:00
		Example 1		1:09
		Example 2		2:34
		Example 3		5:12
		Example 4		16:19
			Question	16:20
			Solution	17:25
		Example 5		24:18
			Question	24:19
			Structure of 2,3-Di-O-Methylglucose	26:47
			Part A	28:11
			Part B	33:46
VII. Lipids
	Fatty Acids & Triacylglycerols			54:55
		Intro		0:00
		Fatty Acids		0:32
			Lipids Overview	0:34
			Introduction to Fatty Acid	3:18
			Saturated Fatty Acid	6:13
			Unsaturated or Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid	7:07
			Saturated Fatty Acid Example	7:46
			Unsaturated Fatty Acid Example	9:06
			Notation Example: Chain Length, Degree of Unsaturation, & Double Bonds Location of Fatty Acid	11:56
			Example 1: Draw the Structure	16:18
			Example 2: Give the Shorthand for cis,cis-5,8-Hexadecadienoic Acid	20:12
			Example 3	23:12
			Solubility of Fatty Acids	25:45
			Melting Points of Fatty Acids	29:40
		Triacylglycerols		34:13
			Definition of Triacylglycerols	34:14
			Structure of Triacylglycerols	35:08
			Example: Triacylglycerols	40:23
			Recall Ester Formation	43:57
			The Body's Primary Fuel-Reserves	47:22
			Two Primary Advantages to Storing Energy as Triacylglycerols Instead of Glycogen: Number 1	49:24
			Two Primary Advantages to Storing Energy as Triacylglycerols Instead of Glycogen: Number 2	51:54
	Membrane Lipids			38:51
		Intro		0:00
		Membrane Lipids		0:26
			Definition of Membrane Lipids	0:27
			Five Major Classes of Membrane Lipids	2:38
		Glycerophospholipids		5:04
			Glycerophospholipids Overview	5:05
			The X Group	8:05
			Example: Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine	10:51
			Example: Phosphatidyl Choline	13:34
			Phosphatidyl Serine	15:16
			Head Groups	16:50
			Ether Linkages Instead of Ester Linkages	20:05
		Galactolipids		23:39
			Galactolipids Overview	23:40
			Monogalactosyldiacylglycerol: MGDG	25:17
			Digalactosyldiacylglycerol: DGDG	28:13
			Structure Examples 1: Lipid Bilayer	31:35
			Structure Examples 2: Cross Section of a Cell	34:56
			Structure Examples 3: MGDG & DGDG	36:28
	Membrane Lipids, Part 2			38:20
		Intro		0:00
		Sphingolipids		0:11
			Sphingolipid Overview	0:12
			Sphingosine Structure	1:42
			Ceramide	3:56
			Subclasses of Sphingolipids Overview	6:00
		Subclasses of Sphingolipids: Sphingomyelins		7:53
			Sphingomyelins	7:54
		Subclasses of Sphingolipids: Glycosphingolipid		12:47
			Glycosphingolipid Overview	12:48
			Cerebrosides & Globosides Overview	14:33
			Example: Cerebrosides	15:43
			Example: Globosides	17:14
		Subclasses of Sphingolipids: Gangliosides		19:07
			Gangliosides	19:08
			Medical Application: Tay-Sachs Disease	23:34
		Sterols		30:45
			Sterols: Basic Structure	30:46
			Important Example: Cholesterol	32:01
			Structures Example	34:13
	The Biologically Active Lipids			48:36
		Intro		0:00
		The Biologically Active Lipids		0:44
			Phosphatidyl Inositol Structure	0:45
			Phosphatidyl Inositol Reaction	3:24
			Image Example	12:49
			Eicosanoids	14:12
			Arachidonic Acid & Membrane Lipid Containing Arachidonic Acid	18:41
		Three Classes of Eicosanoids		20:42
			Overall Structures	21:38
			Prostagladins	22:56
			Thromboxane	27:19
			Leukotrienes	30:19
		More On The Biologically Active Lipids		33:34
			Steroid Hormones	33:35
			Fat Soluble Vitamins	38:25
			Vitamin D₃	40:40
			Vitamin A	43:17
			Vitamin E	45:12
			Vitamin K	47:17
VIII. Energy & Biological Systems (Bioenergetics)
	Thermodynamics, Free Energy & Equilibrium			45:51
		Intro		0:00
		Thermodynamics, Free Energy and Equilibrium		1:03
			Reaction: Glucose + Pi → Glucose 6-Phosphate	1:50
			Thermodynamics & Spontaneous Processes	3:31
			In Going From Reactants → Product, a Reaction Wants to Release Heat	6:30
			A Reaction Wants to Become More Disordered	9:10
			∆H < 0	10:30
			∆H > 0	10:57
			∆S > 0	11:23
			∆S <0	11:56
			∆G = ∆H - T∆S at Constant Pressure	12:15
			Gibbs Free Energy	15:00
			∆G < 0	16:49
			∆G > 0	17:07
			Reference Frame For Thermodynamics Measurements	17:57
			More On BioChemistry Standard	22:36
			Spontaneity	25:36
			Keq	31:45
			Example: Glucose + Pi → Glucose 6-Phosphate	34:14
		Example Problem 1		40:25
			Question	40:26
			Solution	41:12
	More on Thermodynamics & Free Energy			37:06
		Intro		0:00
		More on Thermodynamics & Free Energy		0:16
			Calculating ∆G Under Standard Conditions	0:17
			Calculating ∆G Under Physiological Conditions	2:05
			∆G < 0	5:39
			∆G = 0	7:03
			Reaction Moving Forward Spontaneously	8:00
			∆G & The Maximum Theoretical Amount of Free Energy Available	10:36
			Example Problem 1	13:11
			Reactions That Have Species in Common	17:48
			Example Problem 2: Part 1	20:10
			Example Problem 2: Part 2- Enzyme Hexokinase & Coupling	25:08
			Example Problem 2: Part 3	30:34
			Recap	34:45
	ATP & Other High-Energy Compounds			44:32
		Intro		0:00
		ATP & Other High-Energy Compounds		0:10
			Endergonic Reaction Coupled With Exergonic Reaction	0:11
			Major Theme In Metabolism	6:56
		Why the ∆G°' for ATP Hydrolysis is Large & Negative		12:24
			∆G°' for ATP Hydrolysis	12:25
			Reason 1: Electrostatic Repulsion	14:24
			Reason 2: Pi & Resonance Forms	15:33
			Reason 3: Concentrations of ADP & Pi	17:32
		ATP & Other High-Energy Compounds Cont'd		18:48
			More On ∆G°' & Hydrolysis	18:49
			Other Compounds That Have Large Negative ∆G°' of Hydrolysis: Phosphoenol Pyruvate (PEP)	25:14
			Enzyme Pyruvate Kinase	30:36
			Another High Energy Molecule: 1,3 Biphosphoglycerate	36:17
			Another High Energy Molecule: Phophocreatine	39:41
	Phosphoryl Group Transfers			30:08
		Intro		0:00
		Phosphoryl Group Transfer		0:27
			Phosphoryl Group Transfer Overview	0:28
			Example: Glutamate → Glutamine Part 1	7:11
			Example: Glutamate → Glutamine Part 2	13:29
			ATP Not Only Transfers Phosphoryl, But Also Pyrophosphoryl & Adenylyl Groups	17:03
			Attack At The γ Phosphorous Transfers a Phosphoryl	19:02
			Attack At The β Phosphorous Gives Pyrophosphoryl	22:44
	Oxidation-Reduction Reactions			49:46
		Intro		0:00
		Oxidation-Reduction Reactions		1:32
			Redox Reactions	1:33
			Example 1: Mg + Al³⁺ → Mg²⁺ + Al	3:49
			Reduction Potential Definition	10:47
			Reduction Potential Example	13:38
			Organic Example	22:23
			Review: How To Find The Oxidation States For Carbon	24:15
		Examples: Oxidation States For Carbon		27:45
			Example 1: Oxidation States For Carbon	27:46
			Example 2: Oxidation States For Carbon	28:36
			Example 3: Oxidation States For Carbon	29:18
			Example 4: Oxidation States For Carbon	29:44
			Example 5: Oxidation States For Carbon	30:10
			Example 6: Oxidation States For Carbon	30:40
			Example 7: Oxidation States For Carbon	31:20
			Example 8: Oxidation States For Carbon	32:10
			Example 9: Oxidation States For Carbon	32:52
		Oxidation-Reduction Reactions, cont'd		35:22
			More On Reduction Potential	35:28
			Lets' Start With ∆G = ∆G°' + RTlnQ	38:29
			Example: Oxidation Reduction Reactions	41:42
	More On Oxidation-Reduction Reactions			56:34
		Intro		0:00
		More On Oxidation-Reduction Reactions		0:10
			Example 1: What If the Concentrations Are Not Standard?	0:11
			Alternate Procedure That Uses The 1/2 Reactions Individually	8:57
			Universal Electron Carriers in Aqueous Medium: NAD+ & NADH	15:12
			The Others Are…	19:22
			NAD+ & NADP Coenzymes	20:56
			FMN & FAD	22:03
			Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (Phosphate)	23:03
			Reduction 1/2 Reactions	36:10
			Ratio of NAD+ : NADH	36:52
			Ratio of NADPH : NADP+	38:02
			Specialized Roles of NAD+ & NADPH	38:48
			Oxidoreductase Enzyme Overview	40:26
			Examples of Oxidoreductase	43:32
			The Flavin Nucleotides	46:46
	Example Problems For Bioenergetics			42:12
		Intro		0:00
		Example 1: Calculate the ∆G°' For The Following Reaction		1:04
			Example 1: Question	1:05
			Example 1: Solution	2:20
		Example 2: Calculate the Keq For the Following		4:20
			Example 2: Question	4:21
			Example 2: Solution	5:54
		Example 3: Calculate the ∆G°' For The Hydrolysis of ATP At 25°C		8:52
			Example 3: Question	8:53
			Example 3: Solution	10:30
			Example 3: Alternate Procedure	13:48
		Example 4: Problems For Bioenergetics		16:46
			Example 4: Questions	16:47
			Example 4: Part A Solution	21:19
			Example 4: Part B Solution	23:26
			Example 4: Part C Solution	26:12
		Example 5: Problems For Bioenergetics		29:27
			Example 5: Questions	29:35
			Example 5: Solution - Part 1	32:16
			Example 5: Solution - Part 2	34:39
IX. Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
	Overview of Glycolysis I			43:32
		Intro		0:00
		Overview of Glycolysis		0:48
			Three Primary Paths For Glucose	1:04
			Preparatory Phase of Glycolysis	4:40
			Payoff Phase of Glycolysis	6:40
			Glycolysis Reactions Diagram	7:58
			Enzymes of Glycolysis	12:41
		Glycolysis Reactions		16:02
			Step 1	16:03
			Step 2	18:03
			Step 3	18:52
			Step 4	20:08
			Step 5	21:42
			Step 6	22:44
			Step 7	24:22
			Step 8	25:11
			Step 9	26:00
			Step 10	26:51
		Overview of Glycolysis Cont.		27:28
			The Overall Reaction for Glycolysis	27:29
			Recall The High-Energy Phosphorylated Compounds Discusses In The Bioenergetics Unit	33:10
			What Happens To The Pyruvate That Is Formed?	37:58
	Glycolysis II			61:47
		Intro		0:00
		Glycolysis Step 1: The Phosphorylation of Glucose		0:27
			Glycolysis Step 1: Reaction	0:28
			Hexokinase	2:28
			Glycolysis Step 1: Mechanism-Simple Nucleophilic Substitution	6:34
		Glycolysis Step 2: Conversion of Glucose 6-Phosphate → Fructose 6-Phosphate		11:33
			Glycolysis Step 2: Reaction	11:34
			Glycolysis Step 2: Mechanism, Part 1	14:40
			Glycolysis Step 2: Mechanism, Part 2	18:16
			Glycolysis Step 2: Mechanism, Part 3	19:56
			Glycolysis Step 2: Mechanism, Part 4 (Ring Closing & Dissociation)	21:54
		Glycolysis Step 3: Conversion of Fructose 6-Phosphate to Fructose 1,6-Biphosphate		24:16
			Glycolysis Step 3: Reaction	24:17
			Glycolysis Step 3: Mechanism	26:40
		Glycolysis Step 4: Cleavage of Fructose 1,6-Biphosphate		31:10
			Glycolysis Step 4: Reaction	31:11
			Glycolysis Step 4: Mechanism, Part 1 (Binding & Ring Opening)	35:26
			Glycolysis Step 4: Mechanism, Part 2	37:40
			Glycolysis Step 4: Mechanism, Part 3	39:30
			Glycolysis Step 4: Mechanism, Part 4	44:00
			Glycolysis Step 4: Mechanism, Part 5	46:34
			Glycolysis Step 4: Mechanism, Part 6	49:00
			Glycolysis Step 4: Mechanism, Part 7	50:12
			Hydrolysis of The Imine	52:33
		Glycolysis Step 5: Conversion of Dihydroxyaceton Phosphate to Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate		55:38
			Glycolysis Step 5: Reaction	55:39
		Breakdown and Numbering of Sugar		57:40
	Glycolysis III			59:17
		Intro		0:00
		Glycolysis Step 5: Conversion of Dihydroxyaceton Phosphate to Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate		0:44
			Glycolysis Step 5: Mechanism, Part 1	0:45
			Glycolysis Step 5: Mechanism, Part 2	3:53
		Glycolysis Step 6: Oxidation of Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate to 1,3-Biphosphoglycerate		5:14
			Glycolysis Step 6: Reaction	5:15
			Glycolysis Step 6: Mechanism, Part 1	8:52
			Glycolysis Step 6: Mechanism, Part 2	12:58
			Glycolysis Step 6: Mechanism, Part 3	14:26
			Glycolysis Step 6: Mechanism, Part 4	16:23
		Glycolysis Step 7: Phosphoryl Transfer From 1,3-Biphosphoglycerate to ADP to Form ATP		19:08
			Glycolysis Step 7: Reaction	19:09
			Substrate-Level Phosphorylation	23:18
			Glycolysis Step 7: Mechanism (Nucleophilic Substitution)	26:57
		Glycolysis Step 8: Conversion of 3-Phosphoglycerate to 2-Phosphoglycerate		28:44
			Glycolysis Step 8: Reaction	28:45
			Glycolysis Step 8: Mechanism, Part 1	30:08
			Glycolysis Step 8: Mechanism, Part 2	32:24
			Glycolysis Step 8: Mechanism, Part 3	34:02
			Catalytic Cycle	35:42
		Glycolysis Step 9: Dehydration of 2-Phosphoglycerate to Phosphoenol Pyruvate		37:20
			Glycolysis Step 9: Reaction	37:21
			Glycolysis Step 9: Mechanism, Part 1	40:12
			Glycolysis Step 9: Mechanism, Part 2	42:01
			Glycolysis Step 9: Mechanism, Part 3	43:58
		Glycolysis Step 10: Transfer of a Phosphoryl Group From Phosphoenol Pyruvate To ADP To Form ATP		45:16
			Glycolysis Step 10: Reaction	45:17
			Substrate-Level Phosphorylation	48:32
			Energy Coupling Reaction	51:24
		Glycolysis Balance Sheet		54:15
			Glycolysis Balance Sheet	54:16
			What Happens to The 6 Carbons of Glucose?	56:22
			What Happens to 2 ADP & 2 Pi?	57:04
			What Happens to The 4e⁻ ?	57:15
	Glycolysis IV			39:47
		Intro		0:00
		Feeder Pathways		0:42
			Feeder Pathways Overview	0:43
			Starch, Glycogen	2:25
			Lactose	4:38
			Galactose	4:58
			Manose	5:22
			Trehalose	5:45
			Sucrose	5:56
			Fructose	6:07
		Fates of Pyruvate: Aerobic & Anaerobic Conditions		7:39
			Aerobic Conditions & Pyruvate	7:40
			Anaerobic Fates of Pyruvate	11:18
		Fates of Pyruvate: Lactate Acid Fermentation		14:10
			Lactate Acid Fermentation	14:11
		Fates of Pyruvate: Ethanol Fermentation		19:01
			Ethanol Fermentation Reaction	19:02
			TPP: Thiamine Pyrophosphate (Functions and Structure)	23:10
			Ethanol Fermentation Mechanism, Part 1	27:53
			Ethanol Fermentation Mechanism, Part 2	29:06
			Ethanol Fermentation Mechanism, Part 3	31:15
			Ethanol Fermentation Mechanism, Part 4	32:44
			Ethanol Fermentation Mechanism, Part 5	34:33
			Ethanol Fermentation Mechanism, Part 6	35:48
	Gluconeogenesis I			41:34
		Intro		0:00
		Gluconeogenesis, Part 1		1:02
			Gluconeogenesis Overview	1:03
			3 Glycolytic Reactions That Are Irreversible Under Physiological Conditions	2:29
			Gluconeogenesis Reactions Overview	6:17
			Reaction: Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate	11:07
			Reaction: Oxaloacetate to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)	13:29
			First Pathway That Pyruvate Can Take to Become Phosphoenolpyruvate	15:24
			Second Pathway That Pyruvate Can Take to Become Phosphoenolpyruvate	21:00
			Transportation of Pyruvate From The Cytosol to The Mitochondria	24:15
			Transportation Mechanism, Part 1	26:41
			Transportation Mechanism, Part 2	30:43
			Transportation Mechanism, Part 3	34:04
			Transportation Mechanism, Part 4	38:14
	Gluconeogenesis II			34:18
		Intro		0:00
		Oxaloacetate → Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)		0:35
			Mitochondrial Membrane Does Not Have a Transporter for Oxaloactate	0:36
			Reaction: Oxaloacetate to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)	3:36
			Mechanism: Oxaloacetate to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)	4:48
			Overall Reaction: Pyruvate to Phosphoenolpyruvate	7:01
			Recall The Two Pathways That Pyruvate Can Take to Become Phosphoenolpyruvate	10:16
			NADH in Gluconeogenesis	12:29
		Second Pathway: Lactate → Pyruvate		18:22
			Cytosolic PEP Carboxykinase, Mitochondrial PEP Carboxykinase, & Isozymes	18:23
			2nd Bypass Reaction	23:04
			3rd Bypass Reaction	24:01
			Overall Process	25:17
		Other Feeder Pathways For Gluconeogenesis		26:35
			Carbon Intermediates of The Citric Acid Cycle	26:36
			Amino Acids & The Gluconeogenic Pathway	29:45
			Glycolysis & Gluconeogenesis Are Reciprocally Regulated	32:00
	The Pentose Phosphate Pathway			42:52
		Intro		0:00
		The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Overview		0:17
			The Major Fate of Glucose-6-Phosphate	0:18
			The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) Overview	1:00
		Oxidative Phase of The Pentose Phosphate Pathway		4:33
			Oxidative Phase of The Pentose Phosphate Pathway: Reaction Overview	4:34
			Ribose-5-Phosphate: Glutathione & Reductive Biosynthesis	9:02
			Glucose-6-Phosphate to 6-Phosphogluconate	12:48
			6-Phosphogluconate to Ribulose-5-Phosphate	15:39
			Ribulose-5-Phosphate to Ribose-5-Phosphate	17:05
		Non-Oxidative Phase of The Pentose Phosphate Pathway		19:55
			Non-Oxidative Phase of The Pentose Phosphate Pathway: Overview	19:56
			General Transketolase Reaction	29:03
			Transaldolase Reaction	35:10
			Final Transketolase Reaction	39:10
X. The Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
	Citric Acid Cycle I			36:10
		Intro		0:00
		Stages of Cellular Respiration		0:23
			Stages of Cellular Respiration	0:24
		From Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA		6:56
			From Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA: Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex	6:57
			Overall Reaction	8:42
			Oxidative Decarboxylation	11:54
			Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) & Enzymes	15:30
			Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH) Requires 5 Coenzymes	17:15
			Molecule of CoEnzyme A	18:52
			Thioesters	20:56
			Lipoic Acid	22:31
			Lipoate Is Attached To a Lysine Residue On E₂	24:42
			Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex: Reactions	26:36
			E1: Reaction 1 & 2	30:38
			E2: Reaction 3	31:58
			E3: Reaction 4 & 5	32:44
			Substrate Channeling	34:17
	Citric Acid Cycle II			49:20
		Intro		0:00
		Citric Acid Cycle Reactions Overview		0:26
			Citric Acid Cycle Reactions Overview: Part 1	0:27
			Citric Acid Cycle Reactions Overview: Part 2	7:03
			Things to Note	10:58
		Citric Acid Cycle Reactions & Mechanism		13:57
			Reaction 1: Formation of Citrate	13:58
			Reaction 1: Mechanism	19:01
			Reaction 2: Citrate to Cis Aconistate to Isocitrate	28:50
			Reaction 3: Isocitrate to α-Ketoglutarate	32:35
			Reaction 3: Two Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Enzymes	36:24
			Reaction 3: Mechanism	37:33
			Reaction 4: Oxidation of α-Ketoglutarate to Succinyl-CoA	41:38
			Reaction 4: Notes	46:34
	Citric Acid Cycle III			44:11
		Intro		0:00
		Citric Acid Cycle Reactions & Mechanism		0:21
			Reaction 5: Succinyl-CoA to Succinate	0:24
			Reaction 5: Reaction Sequence	2:35
			Reaction 6: Oxidation of Succinate to Fumarate	8:28
			Reaction 7: Fumarate to Malate	10:17
			Reaction 8: Oxidation of L-Malate to Oxaloacetate	14:15
		More On The Citric Acid Cycle		17:17
			Energy from Oxidation	17:18
			How Can We Transfer This NADH Into the Mitochondria	27:10
			Citric Cycle is Amphibolic - Works In Both Anabolic & Catabolic Pathways	32:06
			Biosynthetic Processes	34:29
			Anaplerotic Reactions Overview	37:26
			Anaplerotic: Reaction 1	41:42
XI. Catabolism of Fatty Acids
	Fatty Acid Catabolism I			48:11
		Intro		0:00
		Introduction to Fatty Acid Catabolism		0:21
			Introduction to Fatty Acid Catabolism	0:22
		Vertebrate Cells Obtain Fatty Acids for Catabolism From 3 Sources		2:16
			Diet: Part 1	4:00
			Diet: Part 2	5:35
			Diet: Part 3	6:20
			Diet: Part 4	6:47
			Diet: Part 5	10:18
			Diet: Part 6	10:54
			Diet: Part 7	12:04
			Diet: Part 8	12:26
			Fats Stored in Adipocytes Overview	13:54
			Fats Stored in Adipocytes (Fat Cells): Part 1	16:13
			Fats Stored in Adipocytes (Fat Cells): Part 2	17:16
			Fats Stored in Adipocytes (Fat Cells): Part 3	19:42
			Fats Stored in Adipocytes (Fat Cells): Part 4	20:52
			Fats Stored in Adipocytes (Fat Cells): Part 5	22:56
		Mobilization of TAGs Stored in Fat Cells		24:35
		Fatty Acid Oxidation		28:29
			Fatty Acid Oxidation	28:48
			3 Reactions of the Carnitine Shuttle	30:42
			Carnitine Shuttle & The Mitochondrial Matrix	36:25
			CAT I	43:58
			Carnitine Shuttle is the Rate-Limiting Steps	46:24
	Fatty Acid Catabolism II			45:58
		Intro		0:00
		Fatty Acid Catabolism		0:15
			Fatty Acid Oxidation Takes Place in 3 Stages	0:16
		β-Oxidation		2:05
			β-Oxidation Overview	2:06
			Reaction 1	4:20
			Reaction 2	7:35
			Reaction 3	8:52
			Reaction 4	10:16
			β-Oxidation Reactions Discussion	11:34
		Notes On β-Oxidation		15:14
			Double Bond After The First Reaction	15:15
			Reaction 1 is Catalyzed by 3 Isozymes of Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase	16:04
			Reaction 2 & The Addition of H₂O	18:38
			After Reaction 4	19:24
			Production of ATP	20:04
		β-Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acid		21:25
			β-Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acid	22:36
		β-Oxidation of Mono-Unsaturates		24:49
			β-Oxidation of Mono-Unsaturates: Reaction 1	24:50
			β-Oxidation of Mono-Unsaturates: Reaction 2	28:43
			β-Oxidation of Mono-Unsaturates: Reaction 3	30:50
			β-Oxidation of Mono-Unsaturates: Reaction 4	31:06
		β-Oxidation of Polyunsaturates		32:29
			β-Oxidation of Polyunsaturates: Part 1	32:30
			β-Oxidation of Polyunsaturates: Part 2	37:08
			β-Oxidation of Polyunsaturates: Part 3	40:25
	Fatty Acid Catabolism III			33:18
		Intro		0:00
		Fatty Acid Catabolism		0:43
			Oxidation of Fatty Acids With an Odd Number of Carbons	0:44
			β-oxidation in the Mitochondrion & Two Other Pathways	9:08
			ω-oxidation	10:37
			α-oxidation	17:22
		Ketone Bodies		19:08
			Two Fates of Acetyl-CoA Formed by β-Oxidation Overview	19:09
			Ketone Bodies: Acetone	20:42
			Ketone Bodies: Acetoacetate	20:57
			Ketone Bodies: D-β-hydroxybutyrate	21:25
			Two Fates of Acetyl-CoA Formed by β-Oxidation: Part 1	22:05
			Two Fates of Acetyl-CoA Formed by β-Oxidation: Part 2	26:59
			Two Fates of Acetyl-CoA Formed by β-Oxidation: Part 3	30:52
XII. Catabolism of Amino Acids and the Urea Cycle
	Overview & The Aminotransferase Reaction			40:59
		Intro		0:00
		Overview of The Aminotransferase Reaction		0:25
			Overview of The Aminotransferase Reaction	0:26
			The Aminotransferase Reaction: Process 1	3:06
			The Aminotransferase Reaction: Process 2	6:46
			Alanine From Muscle Tissue	10:54
			Bigger Picture of the Aminotransferase Reaction	14:52
			Looking Closely at Process 1	19:04
			Pyridoxal Phosphate (PLP)	24:32
			Pyridoxamine Phosphate	25:29
			Pyridoxine (B6)	26:38
			The Function of PLP	27:12
			Mechanism Examples	28:46
			Reverse Reaction: Glutamate to α-Ketoglutarate	35:34
	Glutamine & Alanine: The Urea Cycle I			39:18
		Intro		0:00
		Glutamine & Alanine: The Urea Cycle I		0:45
			Excess Ammonia, Glutamate, and Glutamine	0:46
			Glucose-Alanine Cycle	9:54
			Introduction to the Urea Cycle	20:56
			The Urea Cycle: Production of the Carbamoyl Phosphate	22:59
			The Urea Cycle: Reaction & Mechanism Involving the Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase	33:36
	Glutamine & Alanine: The Urea Cycle II			36:21
		Intro		0:00
		Glutamine & Alanine: The Urea Cycle II		0:14
			The Urea Cycle Overview	0:34
			Reaction 1: Ornithine → Citrulline	7:30
			Reaction 2: Citrulline → Citrullyl-AMP	11:15
			Reaction 2': Citrullyl-AMP → Argininosuccinate	15:25
			Reaction 3: Argininosuccinate → Arginine	20:42
			Reaction 4: Arginine → Orthinine	24:00
			Links Between the Citric Acid Cycle & the Urea Cycle	27:47
			Aspartate-argininosuccinate Shunt	32:36
	Amino Acid Catabolism			47:58
		Intro		0:00
		Amino Acid Catabolism		0:10
			Common Amino Acids and 6 Major Products	0:11
			Ketogenic Amino Acid	1:52
			Glucogenic Amino Acid	2:51
			Amino Acid Catabolism Diagram	4:18
			Cofactors That Play a Role in Amino Acid Catabolism	7:00
			Biotin	8:42
			Tetrahydrofolate	10:44
			S-Adenosylmethionine (AdoMet)	12:46
			Tetrahydrobiopterin	13:53
			S-Adenosylmethionine & Tetrahydrobiopterin Molecules	14:41
		Catabolism of Phenylalanine		18:30
			Reaction 1: Phenylalanine to Tyrosine	18:31
			Reaction 2: Tyrosine to p-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate	21:36
			Reaction 3: p-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate to Homogentisate	23:50
			Reaction 4: Homogentisate to Maleylacetoacetate	25:42
			Reaction 5: Maleylacetoacetate to Fumarylacetoacetate	28:20
			Reaction 6: Fumarylacetoacetate to Fumarate & Succinyl-CoA	29:51
			Reaction 7: Fate of Fumarate & Succinyl-CoA	31:14
		Phenylalanine Hydroxylase		33:33
			The Phenylalanine Hydroxylase Reaction	33:34
			Mixed-Function Oxidases	40:26
			When Phenylalanine Hydoxylase is Defective: Phenylketonuria (PKU)	44:13
XIII. Oxidative Phosphorylation and ATP Synthesis
	Oxidative Phosphorylation I			41:11
		Intro		0:00
		Oxidative Phosphorylation		0:54
			Oxidative Phosphorylation Overview	0:55
			Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain Diagram	7:15
			Enzyme Complex I of the Electron Transport Chain	12:27
			Enzyme Complex II of the Electron Transport Chain	14:02
			Enzyme Complex III of the Electron Transport Chain	14:34
			Enzyme Complex IV of the Electron Transport Chain	15:30
			Complexes Diagram	16:25
		Complex I		18:25
			Complex I Overview	18:26
			What is Ubiquinone or Coenzyme Q?	20:02
			Coenzyme Q Transformation	22:37
			Complex I Diagram	24:47
			Fe-S Proteins	26:42
			Transfer of H⁺	29:42
		Complex II		31:06
			Succinate Dehydrogenase	31:07
			Complex II Diagram & Process	32:54
			Other Substrates Pass Their e⁻ to Q: Glycerol 3-Phosphate	37:31
			Other Substrates Pass Their e⁻ to Q: Fatty Acyl-CoA	39:02
	Oxidative Phosphorylation II			36:27
		Intro		0:00
		Complex III		0:19
			Complex III Overview	0:20
			Complex III: Step 1	1:56
			Complex III: Step 2	6:14
		Complex IV		8:42
			Complex IV: Cytochrome Oxidase	8:43
		Oxidative Phosphorylation, cont'd		17:18
			Oxidative Phosphorylation: Summary	17:19
			Equation 1	19:13
			How Exergonic is the Reaction?	21:03
			Potential Energy Represented by Transported H⁺	27:24
			Free Energy Change for the Production of an Electrochemical Gradient Via an Ion Pump	28:48
			Free Energy Change in Active Mitochondria	32:02

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