Franklin Ow

Franklin Ow

Solutions & Their Behavior

Slide Duration:

Table of Contents

Section 1: Basic Concepts & Measurement of Chemistry
Basic Concepts of Chemistry

16m 26s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:07
Introduction
0:56
What is Chemistry?
0:57
What is Matter?
1:16
Solids
1:43
General Characteristics
1:44
Particulate-level Drawing of Solids
2:34
Liquids
3:39
General Characteristics of Liquids
3:40
Particulate-level Drawing of Liquids
3:55
Gases
4:23
General Characteristics of Gases
4:24
Particulate-level Drawing Gases
5:05
Classification of Matter
5:27
Classification of Matter
5:26
Pure Substances
5:54
Pure Substances
5:55
Mixtures
7:06
Definition of Mixtures
7:07
Homogeneous Mixtures
7:11
Heterogeneous Mixtures
7:52
Physical and Chemical Changes/Properties
8:18
Physical Changes Retain Chemical Composition
8:19
Chemical Changes Alter Chemical Composition
9:32
Physical and Chemical Changes/Properties, cont'd
10:55
Physical Properties
10:56
Chemical Properties
11:42
Sample Problem 1: Chemical & Physical Change
12:22
Sample Problem 2: Element, Compound, or Mixture?
13:52
Sample Problem 3: Classify Each of the Following Properties as chemical or Physical
15:03
Tools in Quantitative Chemistry

29m 22s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:07
Units of Measurement
1:23
The International System of Units (SI): Mass, Length, and Volume
1:39
Percent Error
2:17
Percent Error
2:18
Example: Calculate the Percent Error
2:56
Standard Deviation
3:48
Standard Deviation Formula
3:49
Standard Deviation cont'd
4:42
Example: Calculate Your Standard Deviation
4:43
Precisions vs. Accuracy
6:25
Precision
6:26
Accuracy
7:01
Significant Figures and Uncertainty
7:50
Consider the Following (2) Rulers
7:51
Consider the Following Graduated Cylinder
11:30
Identifying Significant Figures
12:43
The Rules of Sig Figs Overview
12:44
The Rules for Sig Figs: All Nonzero Digits Are Significant
13:21
The Rules for Sig Figs: A Zero is Significant When It is In-Between Nonzero Digits
13:28
The Rules for Sig Figs: A Zero is Significant When at the End of a Decimal Number
14:02
The Rules for Sig Figs: A Zero is not significant When Starting a Decimal Number
14:27
Using Sig Figs in Calculations
15:03
Using Sig Figs for Multiplication and Division
15:04
Using Sig Figs for Addition and Subtraction
15:48
Using Sig Figs for Mixed Operations
16:11
Dimensional Analysis
16:20
Dimensional Analysis Overview
16:21
General Format for Dimensional Analysis
16:39
Example: How Many Miles are in 17 Laps?
17:17
Example: How Many Grams are in 1.22 Pounds?
18:40
Dimensional Analysis cont'd
19:43
Example: How Much is Spent on Diapers in One Week?
19:44
Dimensional Analysis cont'd
21:03
SI Prefixes
21:04
Dimensional Analysis cont'd
22:03
500 mg → ? kg
22:04
34.1 cm → ? um
24:03
Summary
25:11
Sample Problem 1: Dimensional Analysis
26:09
Section 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

52m 18s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:08
Introduction to Atomic Structure
1:03
Introduction to Atomic Structure
1:04
Plum Pudding Model
1:26
Introduction to Atomic Structure Cont'd
2:07
John Dalton's Atomic Theory: Number 1
2:22
John Dalton's Atomic Theory: Number 2
2:50
John Dalton's Atomic Theory: Number 3
3:07
John Dalton's Atomic Theory: Number 4
3:30
John Dalton's Atomic Theory: Number 5
3:58
Introduction to Atomic Structure Cont'd
5:21
Ernest Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment
5:22
Introduction to Atomic Structure Cont'd
7:42
Implications of the Gold Foil Experiment
7:43
Relative Masses and Charges
8:18
Isotopes
9:02
Isotopes
9:03
Introduction to The Periodic Table
12:17
The Periodic Table of the Elements
12:18
Periodic Table, cont'd
13:56
Metals
13:57
Nonmetals
14:25
Semimetals
14:51
Periodic Table, cont'd
15:57
Group I: The Alkali Metals
15:58
Group II: The Alkali Earth Metals
16:25
Group VII: The Halogens
16:40
Group VIII: The Noble Gases
17:08
Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names, Props.
17:35
Common Polyatomic Ions
17:36
Predicting Ionic Charge for Main Group Elements
18:52
Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names, Props.
20:36
Naming Ionic Compounds: Rule 1
20:51
Naming Ionic Compounds: Rule 2
21:22
Naming Ionic Compounds: Rule 3
21:50
Naming Ionic Compounds: Rule 4
22:22
Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names, Props.
22:50
Naming Ionic Compounds Example: Al₂O₃
22:51
Naming Ionic Compounds Example: FeCl₃
23:21
Naming Ionic Compounds Example: CuI₂ 3H₂O
24:00
Naming Ionic Compounds Example: Barium Phosphide
24:40
Naming Ionic Compounds Example: Ammonium Phosphate
25:55
Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
26:42
Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
26:43
The Mole
28:10
The Mole is 'A Chemist's Dozen'
28:11
It is a Central Unit, Connecting the Following Quantities
30:01
The Mole, cont'd
32:07
Atomic Masses
32:08
Example: How Many Moles are in 25.7 Grams of Sodium?
32:28
Example: How Many Atoms are in 1.2 Moles of Carbon?
33:17
The Mole, cont'd
34:25
Example: What is the Molar Mass of Carbon Dioxide?
34:26
Example: How Many Grams are in 1.2 Moles of Carbon Dioxide?
25:46
Percentage Composition
36:43
Example: How Many Grams of Carbon Contained in 65.1 Grams of Carbon Dioxide?
36:44
Empirical and Molecular Formulas
39:19
Empirical Formulas
39:20
Empirical Formula & Elemental Analysis
40:21
Empirical and Molecular Formulas, cont'd
41:24
Example: Determine Both the Empirical and Molecular Formulas - Step 1
41:25
Example: Determine Both the Empirical and Molecular Formulas - Step 2
43:18
Summary
46:22
Sample Problem 1: Determine the Empirical Formula of Lithium Fluoride
47:10
Sample Problem 2: How Many Atoms of Carbon are Present in 2.67 kg of C₆H₆?
49:21
Section 3: Chemical Reactions
Chemical Reactions

43m 24s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:06
The Law of Conservation of Mass and Balancing Chemical Reactions
1:49
The Law of Conservation of Mass
1:50
Balancing Chemical Reactions
2:50
Balancing Chemical Reactions Cont'd
3:40
Balance: N₂ + H₂ → NH₃
3:41
Balance: CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
7:20
Balancing Chemical Reactions Cont'd
9:49
Balance: C₂H₆ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
9:50
Intro to Chemical Equilibrium
15:32
When an Ionic Compound Full Dissociates
15:33
When an Ionic Compound Incompletely Dissociates
16:14
Dynamic Equilibrium
17:12
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
18:03
Electrolytes
18:04
Strong Electrolytes and Weak Electrolytes
18:55
Nonelectrolytes
19:23
Predicting the Product(s) of an Aqueous Reaction
20:02
Single-replacement
20:03
Example: Li (s) + CuCl₂ (aq) → 2 LiCl (aq) + Cu (s)
21:03
Example: Cu (s) + LiCl (aq) → NR
21:23
Example: Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl₂ (aq) + H₂ (g)
22:32
Predicting the Product(s) of an Aqueous Reaction
23:37
Double-replacement
23:38
Net-ionic Equation
25:29
Predicting the Product(s) of an Aqueous Reaction
26:12
Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds
26:13
Predicting the Product(s) of an Aqueous Reaction
28:10
Neutralization Reactions
28:11
Example: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → ?
28:37
Example: H₂SO₄ (aq) + KOH (aq) → ?
29:25
Predicting the Product(s) of an Aqueous Reaction
30:20
Certain Aqueous Reactions can Produce Unstable Compounds
30:21
Example 1
30:52
Example 2
32:16
Example 3
32:54
Summary
33:54
Sample Problem 1
34:55
ZnCO₃ (aq) + H₂SO₄ (aq) → ?
35:09
NH₄Br (aq) + Pb(C₂H₃O₂)₂ (aq) → ?
36:02
KNO₃ (aq) + CuCl₂ (aq) → ?
37:07
Li₂SO₄ (aq) + AgNO₃ (aq) → ?
37:52
Sample Problem 2
39:09
Question 1
39:10
Question 2
40:36
Question 3
41:47
Chemical Reactions II

55m 40s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:10
Arrhenius Definition
1:15
Arrhenius Acids
1:16
Arrhenius Bases
3:20
The Bronsted-Lowry Definition
4:48
Acids Dissolve In Water and Donate a Proton to Water: Example 1
4:49
Acids Dissolve In Water and Donate a Proton to Water: Example 2
6:54
Monoprotic Acids & Polyprotic Acids
7:58
Strong Acids
11:30
Bases Dissolve In Water and Accept a Proton From Water
12:41
Strong Bases
16:36
The Autoionization of Water
17:42
Amphiprotic
17:43
Water Reacts With Itself
18:24
Oxides of Metals and Nonmetals
20:08
Oxides of Metals and Nonmetals Overview
20:09
Oxides of Nonmetals: Acidic Oxides
21:23
Oxides of Metals: Basic Oxides
24:08
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
25:34
Redox Reaction Overview
25:35
Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
27:02
Redox Reaction: Transfer of Electrons
27:54
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Cont'd
29:55
Oxidation Number Overview
29:56
Oxidation Number of Homonuclear Species
31:17
Oxidation Number of Monatomic Ions
32:58
Oxidation Number of Fluorine
33:27
Oxidation Number of Oxygen
34:00
Oxidation Number of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine
35:07
Oxidation Number of Hydrogen
35:30
Net Sum of All Oxidation Numbers In a Compound
36:21
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Cont'd
38:19
Let's Practice Assigning Oxidation Number
38:20
Now Let's Apply This to a Chemical Reaction
41:07
Summary
44:19
Sample Problems
45:29
Sample Problem 1
45:30
Sample Problem 2: Determine the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
48:48
Sample Problem 3: Determine the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
50:43
Section 4: Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry I

42m 10s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:23
Mole to Mole Ratios
1:32
Example 1: In 1 Mole of H₂O, How Many Moles Are There of Each Element?
1:53
Example 2: In 2.6 Moles of Water, How Many Moles Are There of Each Element?
2:24
Mole to Mole Ratios Cont'd
5:13
Balanced Chemical Reaction
5:14
Mole to Mole Ratios Cont'd
7:25
Example 3: How Many Moles of Ammonia Can Form If you Have 3.1 Moles of H₂?
7:26
Example 4: How Many Moles of Hydrogen Gas Are Required to React With 6.4 Moles of Nitrogen Gas?
9:08
Mass to mass Conversion
11:06
Mass to mass Conversion
11:07
Example 5: How Many Grams of Ammonia Can Form If You Have 3.1 Grams of H₂?
12:37
Example 6: How Many Grams of Hydrogen Gas Are Required to React With 6.4 Grams of Nitrogen Gas?
15:34
Example 7: How Man Milligrams of Ammonia Can Form If You Have 1.2 kg of H₂?
17:29
Limiting Reactants, Percent Yields
20:42
Limiting Reactants, Percent Yields
20:43
Example 8: How Many Grams of Ammonia Can Form If You Have 3.1 Grams of H₂ and 3.1 Grams of N₂
22:25
Percent Yield
25:30
Example 9: How Many Grams of The Excess Reactant Remains?
26:37
Summary
29:34
Sample Problem 1: How Many Grams of Carbon Are In 2.2 Kilograms of Carbon Dioxide?
30:47
Sample Problem 2: How Many Milligrams of Carbon Dioxide Can Form From 23.1 Kg of CH₄(g)?
33:06
Sample Problem 3: Part 1
36:10
Sample Problem 3: Part 2 - What Amount Of The Excess Reactant Will Remain?
40:53
Stoichiometry II

42m 38s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:10
Molarity
1:14
Solute and Solvent
1:15
Molarity
2:01
Molarity Cont'd
2:59
Example 1: How Many Grams of KBr are Needed to Make 350 mL of a 0.67 M KBr Solution?
3:00
Example 2: How Many Moles of KBr are in 350 mL of a 0.67 M KBr Solution?
5:44
Example 3: What Volume of a 0.67 M KBr Solution Contains 250 mg of KBr?
7:46
Dilutions
10:01
Dilution: M₁V₂=M₁V₂
10:02
Example 5: Explain How to Make 250 mL of a 0.67 M KBr Solution Starting From a 1.2M Stock Solution
12:04
Stoichiometry and Double-Displacement Precipitation Reactions
14:41
Example 6: How Many grams of PbCl₂ Can Form From 250 mL of 0.32 M NaCl?
15:38
Stoichiometry and Double-Displacement Precipitation Reactions
18:05
Example 7: How Many grams of PbCl₂ Can Form When 250 mL of 0.32 M NaCl and 150 mL of 0.45 Pb(NO₃)₂ Mix?
18:06
Stoichiometry and Neutralization Reactions
21:01
Example 8: How Many Grams of NaOh are Required to Neutralize 4.5 Grams of HCl?
21:02
Stoichiometry and Neutralization Reactions
23:03
Example 9: How Many mL of 0.45 M NaOH are Required to Neutralize 250 mL of 0.89 M HCl?
23:04
Stoichiometry and Acid-Base Standardization
25:28
Introduction to Titration & Standardization
25:30
Acid-Base Titration
26:12
The Analyte & Titrant
26:24
The Experimental Setup
26:49
The Experimental Setup
26:50
Stoichiometry and Acid-Base Standardization
28:38
Example 9: Determine the Concentration of the Analyte
28:39
Summary
32:46
Sample Problem 1: Stoichiometry & Neutralization
35:24
Sample Problem 2: Stoichiometry
37:50
Section 5: Thermochemistry
Energy & Chemical Reactions

55m 28s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:14
Introduction
1:22
Recall: Chemistry
1:23
Energy Can Be Expressed In Different Units
1:57
The First Law of Thermodynamics
2:43
Internal Energy
2:44
The First Law of Thermodynamics Cont'd
6:14
Ways to Transfer Internal Energy
6:15
Work Energy
8:13
Heat Energy
8:34
∆U = q + w
8:44
Calculating ∆U, Q, and W
8:58
Changes In Both Volume and Temperature of a System
8:59
Calculating ∆U, Q, and W Cont'd
11:01
The Work Equation
11:02
Example 1: Calculate ∆U For The Burning Fuel
11:45
Calculating ∆U, Q, and W Cont'd
14:09
The Heat Equation
14:10
Calculating ∆U, Q, and W Cont'd
16:03
Example 2: Calculate The Final Temperature
16:04
Constant-Volume Calorimetry
18:05
Bomb Calorimeter
18:06
The Effect of Constant Volume On The Equation For Internal Energy
22:11
Example 3: Calculate ∆U
23:12
Constant-Pressure Conditions
26:05
Constant-Pressure Conditions
26:06
Calculating Enthalpy: Phase Changes
27:29
Melting, Vaporization, and Sublimation
27:30
Freezing, Condensation and Deposition
28:25
Enthalpy Values For Phase Changes
28:40
Example 4: How Much Energy In The Form of heat is Required to Melt 1.36 Grams of Ice?
29:40
Calculating Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction
31:22
Example 5: Calculate The Heat In kJ Associated With The Complete Reaction of 155 g NH₃
31:23
Using Standard Enthalpies of Formation
33:53
Standard Enthalpies of Formation
33:54
Using Standard Enthalpies of Formation
36:12
Example 6: Calculate The Standard Enthalpies of Formation For The Following Reaction
36:13
Enthalpy From a Series of Reactions
39:58
Hess's Law
39:59
Coffee-Cup Calorimetry
42:43
Coffee-Cup Calorimetry
42:44
Example 7: Calculate ∆H° of Reaction
45:10
Summary
47:12
Sample Problem 1
48:58
Sample Problem 2
51:24
Section 6: Quantum Theory of Atoms
Structure of Atoms

42m 33s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:07
Introduction
1:01
Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment
1:02
Electromagnetic Radiation
2:31
Radiation
2:32
Three Parameters: Energy, Frequency, and Wavelength
2:52
Electromagnetic Radiation
5:18
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
5:19
Atomic Spectroscopy and The Bohr Model
7:46
Wavelengths of Light
7:47
Atomic Spectroscopy Cont'd
9:45
The Bohr Model
9:46
Atomic Spectroscopy Cont'd
12:21
The Balmer Series
12:22
Rydberg Equation For Predicting The Wavelengths of Light
13:04
The Wave Nature of Matter
15:11
The Wave Nature of Matter
15:12
The Wave Nature of Matter
19:10
New School of Thought
19:11
Einstein: Energy
19:49
Hertz and Planck: Photoelectric Effect
20:16
de Broglie: Wavelength of a Moving Particle
21:14
Quantum Mechanics and The Atom
22:15
Heisenberg: Uncertainty Principle
22:16
Schrodinger: Wavefunctions
23:08
Quantum Mechanics and The Atom
24:02
Principle Quantum Number
24:03
Angular Momentum Quantum Number
25:06
Magnetic Quantum Number
26:27
Spin Quantum Number
28:42
The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
29:15
Radial Wave Function
29:16
Probability Distribution Function
32:08
The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
34:02
3-Dimensional Space of Wavefunctions
34:03
Summary
35:57
Sample Problem 1
37:07
Sample Problem 2
40:23
Section 7: Electron Configurations and Periodicity
Periodic Trends

38m 50s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:09
Introduction
0:36
Electron Configuration of Atoms
1:33
Electron Configuration & Atom's Electrons
1:34
Electron Configuration Format
1:56
Electron Configuration of Atoms Cont'd
3:01
Aufbau Principle
3:02
Electron Configuration of Atoms Cont'd
6:53
Electron Configuration Format 1: Li, O, and Cl
6:56
Electron Configuration Format 2: Li, O, and Cl
9:11
Electron Configuration of Atoms Cont'd
12:48
Orbital Box Diagrams
12:49
Pauli Exclusion Principle
13:11
Hund's Rule
13:36
Electron Configuration of Atoms Cont'd
17:35
Exceptions to The Aufbau Principle: Cr
17:36
Exceptions to The Aufbau Principle: Cu
18:15
Electron Configuration of Atoms Cont'd
20:22
Electron Configuration of Monatomic Ions: Al
20:23
Electron Configuration of Monatomic Ions: Al³⁺
20:46
Electron Configuration of Monatomic Ions: Cl
21:57
Electron Configuration of Monatomic Ions: Cl¹⁻
22:09
Electron Configuration Cont'd
24:31
Paramagnetism
24:32
Diamagnetism
25:00
Atomic Radii
26:08
Atomic Radii
26:09
In a Column of the Periodic Table
26:25
In a Row of the Periodic Table
26:46
Ionic Radii
27:30
Ionic Radii
27:31
Anions
27:42
Cations
27:57
Isoelectronic Species
28:12
Ionization Energy
29:00
Ionization Energy
29:01
Electron Affinity
31:37
Electron Affinity
31:37
Summary
33:43
Sample Problem 1: Ground State Configuration and Orbital Box Diagram
34:21
Fe
34:48
P
35:32
Sample Problem 2
36:38
Which Has The Larger Ionization Energy: Na or Li?
36:39
Which Has The Larger Atomic Size: O or N ?
37:23
Which Has The Larger Atomic Size: O²⁻ or N³⁻ ?
38:00
Section 8: Molecular Geometry & Bonding Theory
Bonding & Molecular Structure

52m 39s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:08
Introduction
1:10
Types of Chemical Bonds
1:53
Ionic Bond
1:54
Molecular Bond
2:42
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
3:26
Electronegativity (EN)
3:27
Periodic Trend
4:36
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Cont'd
6:04
Bond Polarity: Polar Covalent Bond
6:05
Bond Polarity: Nonpolar Covalent Bond
8:53
Lewis Electron Dot Structure of Atoms
9:48
Lewis Electron Dot Structure of Atoms
9:49
Lewis Structures of Polyatomic Species
12:51
Single Bonds
12:52
Double Bonds
13:28
Nonbonding Electrons
13:59
Lewis Structures of Polyatomic Species Cont'd
14:45
Drawing Lewis Structures: Step 1
14:48
Drawing Lewis Structures: Step 2
15:16
Drawing Lewis Structures: Step 3
15:52
Drawing Lewis Structures: Step 4
17:31
Drawing Lewis Structures: Step 5
19:08
Drawing Lewis Structure Example: Carbonate
19:33
Resonance and Formal Charges (FC)
24:06
Resonance Structures
24:07
Formal Charge
25:20
Resonance and Formal Charges Cont'd
27:46
More On Formal Charge
27:47
Resonance and Formal Charges Cont'd
28:21
Good Resonance Structures
28:22
VSEPR Theory
31:08
VSEPR Theory Continue
31:09
VSEPR Theory Cont'd
32:53
VSEPR Geometries
32:54
Steric Number
33:04
Basic Geometry
33:50
Molecular Geometry
35:50
Molecular Polarity
37:51
Steps In Determining Molecular Polarity
37:52
Example 1: Polar
38:47
Example 2: Nonpolar
39:10
Example 3: Polar
39:36
Example 4: Polar
40:08
Bond Properties: Order, Length, and Energy
40:38
Bond Order
40:39
Bond Length
41:21
Bond Energy
41:55
Summary
43:09
Sample Problem 1
43:42
XeO₃
44:03
I₃⁻
47:02
SF₅
49:16
Advanced Bonding Theories

1h 11m 41s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:09
Introduction
0:38
Valence Bond Theory
3:07
Valence Bond Theory
3:08
spᶟ Hybridized Carbon Atom
4:19
Valence Bond Theory Cont'd
6:24
spᶟ Hybridized
6:25
Hybrid Orbitals For Water
7:26
Valence Bond Theory Cont'd (spᶟ)
11:53
Example 1: NH₃
11:54
Valence Bond Theory Cont'd (sp²)
14:48
sp² Hybridization
14:49
Example 2: BF₃
16:44
Valence Bond Theory Cont'd (sp)
22:44
sp Hybridization
22:46
Example 3: HCN
23:38
Valence Bond Theory Cont'd (sp³d and sp³d²)
27:36
Valence Bond Theory: sp³d and sp³d²
27:37
Molecular Orbital Theory
29:10
Valence Bond Theory Doesn't Always Account For a Molecule's Magnetic Behavior
29:11
Molecular Orbital Theory Cont'd
30:37
Molecular Orbital Theory
30:38
Wavefunctions
31:04
How s-orbitals Can Interact
32:23
Bonding Nature of p-orbitals: Head-on
35:34
Bonding Nature of p-orbitals: Parallel
39:04
Interaction Between s and p-orbital
40:45
Molecular Orbital Diagram For Homonuclear Diatomics: H₂
42:21
Molecular Orbital Diagram For Homonuclear Diatomics: He₂
45:23
Molecular Orbital Diagram For Homonuclear Diatomic: Li₂
46:39
Molecular Orbital Diagram For Homonuclear Diatomic: Li₂⁺
47:42
Molecular Orbital Diagram For Homonuclear Diatomic: B₂
48:57
Molecular Orbital Diagram For Homonuclear Diatomic: N₂
54:04
Molecular Orbital Diagram: Molecular Oxygen
55:57
Molecular Orbital Diagram For Heteronuclear Diatomics: Hydrochloric Acid
1:02:16
Sample Problem 1: Determine the Atomic Hybridization
1:07:20
XeO₃
1:07:21
SF₆
1:07:49
I₃⁻
1:08:20
Sample Problem 2
1:09:04
Section 9: Gases, Solids, & Liquids
Gases

35m 6s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:07
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
1:23
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
1:24
Parameters To Characterize Gases
3:35
Parameters To Characterize Gases: Pressure
3:37
Interpreting Pressure On a Particulate Level
4:43
Parameters Cont'd
6:08
Units For Expressing Pressure: Psi, Pascal
6:19
Units For Expressing Pressure: mm Hg
6:42
Units For Expressing Pressure: atm
6:58
Units For Expressing Pressure: torr
7:24
Parameters Cont'd
8:09
Parameters To Characterize Gases: Volume
8:10
Common Units of Volume
9:00
Parameters Cont'd
9:11
Parameters To Characterize Gases: Temperature
9:12
Particulate Level
9:36
Parameters To Characterize Gases: Moles
10:24
The Simple Gas Laws
10:43
Gas Laws Are Only Valid For…
10:44
Charles' Law
11:24
The Simple Gas Laws
13:13
Boyle's Law
13:14
The Simple Gas Laws
15:28
Gay-Lussac's Law
15:29
The Simple Gas Laws
17:11
Avogadro's Law
17:12
The Ideal Gas Law
18:43
The Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
18:44
Applications of the Ideal Gas Law
20:12
Standard Temperature and Pressure for Gases
20:13
Applications of the Ideal Gas Law
21:43
Ideal Gas Law & Gas Density
21:44
Gas Pressures and Partial Pressures
23:18
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
23:19
Gas Stoichiometry
24:15
Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gases
24:16
Using The Ideal Gas Law to Get to Moles
25:16
Using Molar Volume to Get to Moles
25:39
Gas Stoichiometry Cont'd
26:03
Example 1: How Many Liters of O₂ at STP are Needed to Form 10.5 g of Water Vapor?
26:04
Summary
28:33
Sample Problem 1: Calculate the Molar Mass of the Gas
29:28
Sample Problem 2: What Mass of Ag₂O is Required to Form 3888 mL of O₂ Gas When Measured at 734 mm Hg and 25°C?
31:59
Intermolecular Forces & Liquids

33m 47s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:10
Introduction
0:46
Intermolecular Forces (IMF)
0:47
Intermolecular Forces of Polar Molecules
1:32
Ion-dipole Forces
1:33
Example: Salt Dissolved in Water
1:50
Coulomb's Law & the Force of Attraction Between Ions and/or Dipoles
3:06
IMF of Polar Molecules cont'd
4:36
Enthalpy of Solvation or Enthalpy of Hydration
4:37
IMF of Polar Molecules cont'd
6:01
Dipole-dipole Forces
6:02
IMF of Polar Molecules cont'd
7:22
Hydrogen Bonding
7:23
Example: Hydrogen Bonding of Water
8:06
IMF of Nonpolar Molecules
9:37
Dipole-induced Dipole Attraction
9:38
IMF of Nonpolar Molecules cont'd
11:34
Induced Dipole Attraction, London Dispersion Forces, or Vand der Waals Forces
11:35
Polarizability
13:46
IMF of Nonpolar Molecules cont'd
14:26
Intermolecular Forces (IMF) and Polarizability
14:31
Properties of Liquids
16:48
Standard Molar Enthalpy of Vaporization
16:49
Trends in Boiling Points of Representative Liquids: H₂O vs. H₂S
17:43
Properties of Liquids cont'd
18:36
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
18:37
Branched Hydrocarbons
20:52
Properties of Liquids cont'd
22:10
Vapor Pressure
22:11
The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
24:30
Properties of Liquids cont'd
25:52
Boiling Point
25:53
Properties of Liquids cont'd
27:07
Surface Tension
27:08
Viscosity
28:06
Summary
29:04
Sample Problem 1: Determine Which of the Following Liquids Will Have the Lower Vapor Pressure
30:21
Sample Problem 2: Determine Which of the Following Liquids Will Have the Largest Standard Molar Enthalpy of Vaporization
31:37
The Chemistry of Solids

25m 13s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:07
Introduction
0:46
General Characteristics
0:47
Particulate-level Drawing
1:09
The Basic Structure of Solids: Crystal Lattices
1:37
The Unit Cell Defined
1:38
Primitive Cubic
2:50
Crystal Lattices cont'd
3:58
Body-centered Cubic
3:59
Face-centered Cubic
5:02
Lattice Enthalpy and Trends
6:27
Introduction to Lattice Enthalpy
6:28
Equation to Calculate Lattice Enthalpy
7:21
Different Types of Crystalline Solids
9:35
Molecular Solids
9:36
Network Solids
10:25
Phase Changes Involving Solids
11:03
Melting & Thermodynamic Value
11:04
Freezing & Thermodynamic Value
11:49
Phase Changes cont'd
12:40
Sublimation & Thermodynamic Value
12:41
Depositions & Thermodynamic Value
13:13
Phase Diagrams
13:40
Introduction to Phase Diagrams
13:41
Phase Diagram of H₂O: Melting Point
14:12
Phase Diagram of H₂O: Normal Boiling Point
14:50
Phase Diagram of H₂O: Sublimation Point
15:02
Phase Diagram of H₂O: Point C ( Supercritical Point)
15:32
Phase Diagrams cont'd
16:31
Phase Diagram of Dry Ice
16:32
Summary
18:15
Sample Problem 1, Part A: Of the Group I Fluorides, Which Should Have the Highest Lattice Enthalpy?
19:01
Sample Problem 1, Part B: Of the Lithium Halides, Which Should Have the Lowest Lattice Enthalpy?
19:54
Sample Problem 2: How Many Joules of Energy is Required to Melt 546 mg of Ice at Standard Pressure?
20:55
Sample Problem 3: Phase Diagram of Helium
22:42
Section 10: Solutions, Rates of Reaction, & Equilibrium
Solutions & Their Behavior

38m 6s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:10
Units of Concentration
1:40
Molarity
1:41
Molality
3:30
Weight Percent
4:26
ppm
5:16
Like Dissolves Like
6:28
Like Dissolves Like
6:29
Factors Affecting Solubility
9:35
The Effect of Pressure: Henry's Law
9:36
The Effect of Temperature on Gas Solubility
12:16
The Effect of Temperature on Solid Solubility
14:28
Colligative Properties
16:48
Colligative Properties
16:49
Changes in Vapor Pressure: Raoult's Law
17:19
Colligative Properties cont'd
19:53
Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
19:54
Colligative Properties cont'd
26:13
Definition of Osmosis
26:14
Osmotic Pressure Example
27:11
Summary
31:11
Sample Problem 1: Calculating Vapor Pressure
32:53
Sample Problem 2: Calculating Molality
36:29
Chemical Kinetics

37m 45s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:06
Introduction
1:09
Chemical Kinetics and the Rate of a Reaction
1:10
Factors Influencing Rate
1:19
Introduction cont'd
2:27
How a Reaction Progresses Through Time
2:28
Rate of Change Equation
6:02
Rate Laws
7:06
Definition of Rate Laws
7:07
General Form of Rate Laws
7:37
Rate Laws cont'd
11:07
Rate Orders With Respect to Reactant and Concentration
11:08
Methods of Initial Rates
13:38
Methods of Initial Rates
13:39
Integrated Rate Laws
17:57
Integrated Rate Laws
17:58
Graphically Determine the Rate Constant k
18:52
Reaction Mechanisms
21:05
Step 1: Reversible
21:18
Step 2: Rate-limiting Step
21:44
Rate Law for the Reaction
23:28
Reaction Rates and Temperatures
26:16
Reaction Rates and Temperatures
26:17
The Arrhenius Equation
29:06
Catalysis
30:31
Catalyst
30:32
Summary
32:02
Sample Problem 1: Calculate the Rate Constant and the Time Required for the Reaction to be Completed
32:54
Sample Problem 2: Calculate the Energy of Activation and the Order of the Reaction
35:24
Principles of Chemical Equilibrium

34m 9s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:08
Introduction
1:02
The Equilibrium Constant
3:08
The Equilibrium Constant
3:09
The Equilibrium Constant cont'd
5:50
The Equilibrium Concentration and Constant for Solutions
5:51
The Equilibrium Partial Pressure and Constant for Gases
7:01
Relationship of Kc and Kp
7:30
Heterogeneous Equilibria
8:23
Heterogeneous Equilibria
8:24
Manipulating K
9:57
First Way of Manipulating K
9:58
Second Way of Manipulating K
11:48
Manipulating K cont'd
12:31
Third Way of Manipulating K
12:32
The Reaction Quotient Q
14:42
The Reaction Quotient Q
14:43
Q > K
16:16
Q < K
16:30
Q = K
16:43
Le Chatlier's Principle
17:32
Restoring Equilibrium When It is Disturbed
17:33
Disturbing a Chemical System at Equilibrium
18:35
Problem-Solving with ICE Tables
19:05
Determining a Reaction's Equilibrium Constant With ICE Table
19:06
Problem-Solving with ICE Tables cont'd
21:03
Example 1: Calculate O₂(g) at Equilibrium
21:04
Problem-Solving with ICE Tables cont'd
22:53
Example 2: Calculate the Equilibrium Constant
22:54
Summary
25:24
Sample Problem 1: Calculate the Equilibrium Constant
27:59
Sample Problem 2: Calculate The Equilibrium Concentration
30:30
Section 11: Acids & Bases Chemistry
Acid-Base Chemistry

43m 44s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:06
Introduction
0:55
Bronsted-Lowry Acid & Bronsted -Lowry Base
0:56
Water is an Amphiprotic Molecule
2:40
Water Reacting With Itself
2:58
Introduction cont'd
4:04
Strong Acids
4:05
Strong Bases
5:18
Introduction cont'd
6:16
Weak Acids and Bases
6:17
Quantifying Acid-Base Strength
7:35
The pH Scale
7:36
Quantifying Acid-Base Strength cont'd
9:55
The Acid-ionization Constant Ka and pKa
9:56
Quantifying Acid-Base Strength cont'd
12:13
Example: Calculate the pH of a 1.2M Solution of Acetic Acid
12:14
Quantifying Acid-Base Strength
15:06
Calculating the pH of Weak Base Solutions
15:07
Writing Out Acid-Base Equilibria
17:45
Writing Out Acid-Base Equilibria
17:46
Writing Out Acid-Base Equilibria cont'd
19:47
Consider the Following Equilibrium
19:48
Conjugate Base and Conjugate Acid
21:18
Salts Solutions
22:00
Salts That Produce Acidic Aqueous Solutions
22:01
Salts That Produce Basic Aqueous Solutions
23:15
Neutral Salt Solutions
24:05
Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids
24:44
Example: Calculate the pH of a 1.2 M Solution of H₂SO₃
24:43
Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids cont'd
27:18
Calculate the pH of a 1.2 M Solution of Na₂SO₃
27:19
Lewis Acids and Bases
29:13
Lewis Acids
29:14
Lewis Bases
30:10
Example: Lewis Acids and Bases
31:04
Molecular Structure and Acidity
32:03
The Effect of Charge
32:04
Within a Period/Row
33:07
Molecular Structure and Acidity cont'd
34:17
Within a Group/Column
34:18
Oxoacids
35:58
Molecular Structure and Acidity cont'd
37:54
Carboxylic Acids
37:55
Hydrated Metal Cations
39:23
Summary
40:39
Sample Problem 1: Calculate the pH of a 1.2 M Solution of NH₃
41:20
Sample Problem 2: Predict If The Following Slat Solutions are Acidic, Basic, or Neutral
42:37
Applications of Aqueous Equilibria

55m 26s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:07
Calculating pH of an Acid-Base Mixture
0:53
Equilibria Involving Direct Reaction With Water
0:54
When a Bronsted-Lowry Acid and Base React
1:12
After Neutralization Occurs
2:05
Calculating pH of an Acid-Base Mixture cont'd
2:51
Example: Calculating pH of an Acid-Base Mixture, Step 1 - Neutralization
2:52
Example: Calculating pH of an Acid-Base Mixture, Step 2 - React With H₂O
5:24
Buffers
7:45
Introduction to Buffers
7:46
When Acid is Added to a Buffer
8:50
When Base is Added to a Buffer
9:54
Buffers cont'd
10:41
Calculating the pH
10:42
Calculating the pH When 0.010 mol NaOH is Added to 1.0 L of the Buffer
14:03
Buffers cont'd
14:10
Calculating the pH When 0.010 mol NaOH is Added to 1.0 L of the Buffer: Step 1 -Neutralization
14:11
Calculating the pH When 0.010 mol NaOH is Added to 1.0 L of the Buffer: Step 2- ICE Table
15:22
Buffer Preparation and Capacity
16:38
Example: Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution
16:42
Effective Buffer
18:40
Acid-Base Titrations
19:33
Acid-Base Titrations: Basic Setup
19:34
Acid-Base Titrations cont'd
22:12
Example: Calculate the pH at the Equivalence Point When 0.250 L of 0.0350 M HClO is Titrated With 1.00 M KOH
22:13
Acid-Base Titrations cont'd
25:38
Titration Curve
25:39
Solubility Equilibria
33:07
Solubility of Salts
33:08
Solubility Product Constant: Ksp
34:14
Solubility Equilibria cont'd
34:58
Q < Ksp
34:59
Q > Ksp
35:34
Solubility Equilibria cont'd
36:03
Common-ion Effect
36:04
Example: Calculate the Solubility of PbCl₂ in 0.55 M NaCl
36:30
Solubility Equilibria cont'd
39:02
When a Solid Salt Contains the Conjugate of a Weak Acid
39:03
Temperature and Solubility
40:41
Complexation Equilibria
41:10
Complex Ion
41:11
Complex Ion Formation Constant: Kf
42:26
Summary
43:35
Sample Problem 1: Question
44:23
Sample Problem 1: Part a) Calculate the pH at the Beginning of the Titration
45:48
Sample Problem 1: Part b) Calculate the pH at the Midpoint or Half-way Point
48:04
Sample Problem 1: Part c) Calculate the pH at the Equivalence Point
48:32
Sample Problem 1: Part d) Calculate the pH After 27.50 mL of the Acid was Added
53:00
Section 12: Thermodynamics & Electrochemistry
Entropy & Free Energy

36m 13s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:08
Introduction
0:53
Introduction to Entropy
1:37
Introduction to Entropy
1:38
Entropy and Heat Flow
6:31
Recall Thermodynamics
6:32
Entropy is a State Function
6:54
∆S and Heat Flow
7:28
Entropy and Heat Flow cont'd
8:18
Entropy and Heat Flow: Equations
8:19
Endothermic Processes: ∆S > 0
8:44
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
10:04
Total ∆S = ∆S of System + ∆S of Surrounding
10:05
Nature Favors Processes Where The Amount of Entropy Increases
10:22
The Third Law of Thermodynamics
11:55
The Third Law of Thermodynamics & Zero Entropy
11:56
Problem-Solving involving Entropy
12:36
Endothermic Process and ∆S
12:37
Exothermic Process and ∆S
13:19
Problem-Solving cont'd
13:46
Change in Physical States: From Solid to Liquid to Gas
13:47
Change in Physical States: All Gases
15:02
Problem-Solving cont'd
15:56
Calculating the ∆S for the System, Surrounding, and Total
15:57
Example: Calculating the Total ∆S
16:17
Problem-Solving cont'd
18:36
Problems Involving Standard Molar Entropies of Formation
18:37
Introduction to Gibb's Free Energy
20:09
Definition of Free Energy ∆G
20:10
Spontaneous Process and ∆G
20:19
Gibb's Free Energy cont'd
22:28
Standard Molar Free Energies of Formation
22:29
The Free Energies of Formation are Zero for All Compounds in the Standard State
22:42
Gibb's Free Energy cont'd
23:31
∆G° of the System = ∆H° of the System - T∆S° of the System
23:32
Predicting Spontaneous Reaction Based on the Sign of ∆G° of the System
24:24
Gibb's Free Energy cont'd
26:32
Effect of reactant and Product Concentration on the Sign of Free Energy
26:33
∆G° of Reaction = -RT ln K
27:18
Summary
28:12
Sample Problem 1: Calculate ∆S° of Reaction
28:48
Sample Problem 2: Calculate the Temperature at Which the Reaction Becomes Spontaneous
31:18
Sample Problem 3: Calculate Kp
33:47
Electrochemistry

41m 16s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:08
Introduction
0:53
Redox Reactions
1:42
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction Overview
1:43
Redox Reactions cont'd
2:37
Which Reactant is Being Oxidized and Which is Being Reduced?
2:38
Redox Reactions cont'd
6:34
Balance Redox Reaction In Neutral Solutions
6:35
Redox Reactions cont'd
10:37
Balance Redox Reaction In Acidic and Basic Solutions: Step 1
10:38
Balance Redox Reaction In Acidic and Basic Solutions: Step 2 - Balance Each Half-Reaction
11:22
Redox Reactions cont'd
12:19
Balance Redox Reaction In Acidic and Basic Solutions: Step 2 - Balance Hydrogen
12:20
Redox Reactions cont'd
14:30
Balance Redox Reaction In Acidic and Basic Solutions: Step 3
14:34
Balance Redox Reaction In Acidic and Basic Solutions: Step 4
15:38
Voltaic Cells
17:01
Voltaic Cell or Galvanic Cell
17:02
Cell Notation
22:03
Electrochemical Potentials
25:22
Electrochemical Potentials
25:23
Electrochemical Potentials cont'd
26:07
Table of Standard Reduction Potentials
26:08
The Nernst Equation
30:41
The Nernst Equation
30:42
It Can Be Shown That At Equilibrium E =0.00
32:15
Gibb's Free Energy and Electrochemistry
32:46
Gibbs Free Energy is Relatively Small if the Potential is Relatively High
32:47
When E° is Very Large
33:39
Charge, Current and Time
33:56
A Battery Has Three Main Parameters
33:57
A Simple Equation Relates All of These Parameters
34:09
Summary
34:50
Sample Problem 1: Redox Reaction
35:26
Sample Problem 2: Battery
38:00
Section 13: Transition Elements & Coordination Compounds
The Chemistry of The Transition Metals

39m 3s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:11
Coordination Compounds
1:20
Coordination Compounds
1:21
Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds
2:48
Rule 1
3:01
Rule 2
3:12
Rule 3
4:07
Nomenclature cont'd
4:58
Rule 4
4:59
Rule 5
5:13
Rule 6
5:35
Rule 7
6:19
Rule 8
6:46
Nomenclature cont'd
7:39
Rule 9
7:40
Rule 10
7:45
Rule 11
8:00
Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds: NH₄[PtCl₃NH₃]
8:11
Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds: [Cr(NH₃)₄(OH)₂]Br
9:31
Structures of Coordination Compounds
10:54
Coordination Number or Steric Number
10:55
Commonly Observed Coordination Numbers and Geometries: 4
11:14
Commonly Observed Coordination Numbers and Geometries: 6
12:00
Isomers of Coordination Compounds
13:13
Isomers of Coordination Compounds
13:14
Geometrical Isomers of CN = 6 Include: ML₄L₂'
13:30
Geometrical Isomers of CN = 6 Include: ML₃L₃'
15:07
Isomers cont'd
17:00
Structural Isomers Overview
17:01
Structural Isomers: Ionization
18:06
Structural Isomers: Hydrate
19:25
Structural Isomers: Linkage
20:11
Structural Isomers: Coordination Isomers
21:05
Electronic Structure
22:25
Crystal Field Theory
22:26
Octahedral and Tetrahedral Field
22:54
Electronic Structure cont'd
25:43
Vanadium (II) Ion in an Octahedral Field
25:44
Chromium(III) Ion in an Octahedral Field
26:37
Electronic Structure cont'd
28:47
Strong-Field Ligands and Weak-Field Ligands
28:48
Implications of Electronic Structure
30:08
Compare the Magnetic Properties of: [Fe(OH₂)₆]²⁺ vs. [Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻
30:09
Discussion on Color
31:57
Summary
34:41
Sample Problem 1: Name the Following Compound [Fe(OH)(OH₂)₅]Cl₂
35:08
Sample Problem 1: Name the Following Compound [Co(NH₃)₃(OH₂)₃]₂(SO₄)₃
36:24
Sample Problem 2: Change in Magnetic Properties
37:30
Section 14: Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Chemistry

16m 39s

Intro
0:00
Lesson Overview
0:06
Introduction
0:40
Introduction to Nuclear Reactions
0:41
Types of Radioactive Decay
2:10
Alpha Decay
2:11
Beta Decay
3:27
Gamma Decay
4:40
Other Types of Particles of Varying Energy
5:40
Nuclear Equations
6:47
Nuclear Equations
6:48
Nuclear Decay
9:28
Nuclear Decay and the First-Order Kinetics
9:29
Summary
11:31
Sample Problem 1: Complete the Following Nuclear Equations
12:13
Sample Problem 2: How Old is the Rock?
14:21
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Lecture Comments (11)

1 answer

Last reply by: Howard Lee
Tue Jul 16, 2019 12:51 PM

Post by Fatima Baloch on July 16, 2019

Hi Mr. Ow,

In regards to osmotic pressure, you said that if you have an area with a great concentration solute, osmosis is going to happen more readily and easily.  Therefore, a high pi value is needed to prevent osmosis. If the equation is pi = i(M)(R)(T), pi is directly related to i. So isn't i considered the number of solutes of ions? If the number of solutes increase, that means the osmotic pressure is going to be higher to prevent osmosis. But...if number of solutes increase, wouldn't osmosis be bound to occur anyways (because it is a passive process)? When would we see a high osmotic pressure in everyday life?

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Franklin Ow
Fri Feb 7, 2014 10:19 AM

Post by Drew Bernard on January 21, 2014

In Raoult's law, I noticed that P^0 according to you, was the vapor pressure of the pure solute. The formula in my textbook says that it stands for the vapor pressure of the solvent. Which one would it be, and how can I tell which one to use?

2 answers

Last reply by: Fatima Baloch
Tue Jul 16, 2019 7:47 AM

Post by A Y on November 27, 2013

isn't Molality mols of solute per kilogram of solvent, (not mols of solute per kilogram of solution as mentioned in the video)?

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Franklin Ow
Thu Nov 7, 2013 5:13 PM

Post by juaniza harris juaniza harris on October 8, 2013

a 23 percent by mass solution of LiCl is prepared in water is prepared.what is the mole fraction of water

Related Articles:

Solutions & Their Behavior

  • Solution concentration can often be expressed in units of molarity, molality, weight percent, or as ppm.
  • Polar solutions are miscible with other polar solutions, and nonpolar solutions are miscible with other nonpolar solutions. Polar and nonpolar solutions do not mix and form hetereogeneous mixtures.
  • The solubilities of gases and solids in a solution are influenced by pressure and temperature.
  • Colligative properties are independent of a solution’s identity and are dependent on the relative amount of solute.

Solutions & Their Behavior

Lecture Slides are screen-captured images of important points in the lecture. Students can download and print out these lecture slide images to do practice problems as well as take notes while watching the lecture.

  • Intro 0:00
  • Lesson Overview 0:10
  • Units of Concentration 1:40
    • Molarity
    • Molality
    • Weight Percent
    • ppm
  • Like Dissolves Like 6:28
    • Like Dissolves Like
  • Factors Affecting Solubility 9:35
    • The Effect of Pressure: Henry's Law
    • The Effect of Temperature on Gas Solubility
    • The Effect of Temperature on Solid Solubility
  • Colligative Properties 16:48
    • Colligative Properties
    • Changes in Vapor Pressure: Raoult's Law
  • Colligative Properties cont'd 19:53
    • Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
  • Colligative Properties cont'd 26:13
    • Definition of Osmosis
    • Osmotic Pressure Example
  • Summary 31:11
  • Sample Problem 1: Calculating Vapor Pressure 32:53
  • Sample Problem 2: Calculating Molality 36:29

Transcription: Solutions & Their Behavior

Hi, welcome back to Educator.com.0000

Today's lecture from general chemistry is concerning solutions and their behavior.0003

Here is the unit lesson overview.0012

We are first going to do the introduction into the different units of solution concentration,0015

basically what we call molarity, molality, weight percent, and parts per million.0023

After we get into the different concentrations of units of solutions, I then want to go0032

into what you may have learned in high school chemistry which the rule, like dissolves like.0038

We are going to see how solutions can interact with each other.0045

The third one is then solubility.0050

What is the factors that influence how well a solid or a gas dissolves into a solution?0054

We are going to learn that there is really two factors.0063

The first one is pressure; the second one is temperature.0066

After we talk about the factors that affect solubility, we will then go into what we call colligative properties.0071

The colligative properties that we are going to be discussing are more or less four of them.0079

The first one is vapor pressure.0085

The second and third are together, boiling point and freezing point.0087

Last but not least is osmotic pressure.0092

As always we will get into summary slide and sample problems.0096

Let's go ahead and now jump into the units of concentration.0105

Whenever you buy a beverage or something like that from the supermarket,0109

they usually give you maybe like the percentage of fruit juice suppose in your beverage.0114

That percentage is a unit of concentration.0122

It tells you how much of that ingredient is in the entire beverage.0124

Of course for chemistry, we also need a way of defining a solution concentration.0131

The most common solution concentration unit that we see in the chemistry laboratory is what we call molarity.0138

Molarity is formally defined as the following.0147

This is going to be equal to moles of solute for every liter of solution.0150

Again moles of solute for every liter of solution.0165

Molarity is typically symbolized with a capital M.0168

There is a couple of ways we can actually verbalize this too.0174

Let's say we had 0.67M NaCl.0177

If we were to translate this and verbalize it, we would say 0.67 molar NaCl solution.0184

Again this is the language that we use.0197

Anytime you see capital M, it is molar.0200

Again this is the most common unit of concentration we see in the chemistry lab for solutions.0204

The second one is related to molarity; it is just a different variation.0210

This is called molality; molality is going to be equal to the following.0215

This is going to be equal to moles of solute for every not liter of solution but kilogram of solution.0224

Moles of solute for every kilogram of solution.0238

Typically molality is symbolized with lowercase m.0241

0.67M NaCl, we would verbalize this as 0.67 molal NaCl solution.0246

Molarity followed by molality.0263

The next two we don't see too much.0267

But you do see this third one called weight percent.0270

You do see it quite often commercially.0274

For example, that beverage you buy in the supermarket.0279

What weight percent is is the following.0281

This is going to be equal to the mass of solute divided by the mass of solution times 100.0285

Weight percent is commonly abbreviated m/m percent; that is what we commonly see.0301

Again this is what we call weight percent, mass of solute divided by the mass of solution.0310

Finally the fourth and final concentration is ppm; ppm stands for parts per million.0315

Really we reserve the use of ppm for solutions that are very dilute or0327

the concentration of solute is incredibly small; used for very dilute solutions.0333

What parts per million is is basically the following.0347

This is going to be equal to milligrams of solute for every liter of solution0350

which is also equivalent to milligrams of solute divided by kilograms of solution.0360

You can see why this is reserved for very small quantities.0370

You see that the mass that we use for the solute is intentionally fixed to milligrams.0373

These are the four concentration units to express a concentration for a solution.0380

I now want to go into how solutions can interact with each other.0390

The way solutions can interact with each other is an old rule of thumb we have heard before.0395

It is called like dissolves like.0402

This refers to something that we have discussed previously; this refers to polarity.0404

Basically polar solutions will mix and be miscible.0416

Nonpolar solutions will also mix and be miscible.0436

However polar and nonpolar do not mix.0446

You can see the importance of when we talked about VSEPR theory and using VSEPR to determine molecular polarity.0459

You can see why this would come in handy.0466

For example, an alcohol and H2O; both of these are polar.0470

These two will mix and be miscible with each other.0491

When you go to the supermarket and you purchase rubbing alcohol, rubbing alcohol is typically 70 percent.0496

It will say that on the bottle.0507

What that means is that it is 70 percent alcohol and the rest is just water, 30 percent.0508

Again that is going to be miscible.0513

The next one that we can see is the following.0521

We can take water and fat; water we know is polar already.0526

But the fats and oils are going to be nonpolar.0539

We know that when we combine water and oil, we get a heterogeneous layer, a heterogenous mixture.0550

The two do not mix; immiscible.0555

Again anytime you are predicting if two solutions are going to mix, just use the rule of thumb0562

like dissolves like to determine if it is going to be homogeneous or heterogeneous.0569

Once two solutions mix, the next question is how well do they mix?0579

In other words, what are the factors affecting solubility--how well two components combine together?0586

The first factor is the effect of pressure; this is what we call Henry's law.0608

Henry's law tells us that solubility is going to be directly proportional to the following--something we call Henry's constant and P.0618

Capital P is going to be the vapor pressure of the solute.0637

Let's imagine the following; let's say we had a can of soda.0653

In this can of soda was H2O and CO2 gas.0660

Let's say that this was open versus the same can of soda closed.0667

Now the question is in which of these cans is the CO2 going to be more in the water?0682

The answer of course is going to be where the can is closed.0690

When the can is closed, the vapor pressure of CO2 is greater than when0693

the can is open because in the can that is open, CO2 can escape.0701

Basically we see the relationship that solubility of the CO2 is directly proportional to its pressure.0709

Henry's constant helps make this proportionality into the equation.0720

Henry's constant is going to be unique for each substance.0725

Once again Henry's law tells us that solubility is directly proportional to vapor pressure.0737

That is the first factor.0747

The second factor is going to be the effect of temperature.0749

The effect of temperature is different on a gas versus a solid.0753

Let's go ahead and look at that can of soda again.0759

Let's have both of these cans open.0765

Once again we have H2O, CO2, H2O, and CO2.0771

Let's make the left can hot; let's make the right can cold.0778

Now the question is the following.0786

In which cans of soda is the CO2 going to escape more?0788

In other words, is a hot can or cold can of soda going to fizz more?0795

It turns out that the warmer the can, the more fizz you get.0801

But what is this is fizz that you and I hear?0815

This fizz that we hear is CO2 gas escaping which means that the CO2 gas is not as soluble in the water.0819

It is less soluble; it is escaping instead.0834

The effect of temperature on gas solubility is an inverse relationship.0838

That is as the temperature increases, the solubility of a gas goes down.0845

That is as the temperature increases, the solubility of a gas goes down.0854

Less of it stays in solution.0859

More of it escapes which explains why a warmer can of soda fizzes more than a colder can.0861

The effect of temperature on solid solubility is now we are going to find is going to be opposite; opposite to gas solubility.0872

This one we know; it is a little more intuitive.0885

Let's say we are brewing a tea bag.0890

Which of the situations are you going to get the tea to brew faster, in cold water or hot water?0894

It is in hot water; you see that happen before your eyes.0899

That is because as temperature goes up, solids dissolve more easily.0902

Just think about it.0914

When are we able to clean better, our dishes that is, in cold water or hot water?0917

It is hot water because all the fats and oils are going to dissolve more easily in the water and in the soap.0921

As temperature goes up, solids dissolve much more easily.0928

The effect of temperature on solid solubility is completely opposite to that of gas solubility.0936

Again the examples that we did was a tea bag brewing faster in warmer water.0946

Another sign from everyday life is the appearance of your tap water.0962

Doesn't tap water appear cloudy when it is warmer?0967

The answer is yes because there is more dissolved ions and minerals coming out.0971

Warm tap water is not as clear.0977

It is cloudier due to more due to more dissolved ions and minerals that are present and abundant in tap water.0984

Again these are the factors that affect solubility; it is pressure and temperature.1002

We now move on to what are known as colligative properties.1011

Colligative properties of a solution are defined as the following.1016

These are properties that depend on the relative quantity of solute particles and not on the chemical identity per say.1020

We are interested in solute amount; again that is going to be relative to solution.1029

There is a law that helps to quantify the relationship; this is called Raoult's law.1045

Raoult's law is P is equal to x times P0 where P is the vapor pressure of the solute in solution.1052

P0 is the vapor pressure of the pure solute just by itself.1074

x is going to be the mole fraction of solute.1088

As you can see, as x increases, that is as solute amount goes up, so does the vapor pressure.1100

That makes sense; you toss more of a solute in.1123

It is going to have just a higher vapor pressure right above the surface of the liquid.1126

What is x again?--x is going to be the mole fraction; net mole fraction of solute.1136

This is going to be the moles of solute divided the moles of solute plus moles of solvent1145

which is also can be rewritten as moles of solute divided by the moles of total solution.1159

Of course the mole fraction of solute is going to be less than or equal to 1.1171

Once again this is Raoult's law.1179

Basically the vapor pressure of the solute is directly proportional to what the quantity is in solution.1183

The next two colligative properties also depend on amount.1195

This is a boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.1200

Basically as solute is added to a solution, the freezing point of the solution decreases.1206

That is what we call a depression.1227

The boiling point of solution is going to go up.1230

That is what we call elevation.1236

If we were to look at a phase diagram of pressure versus temperature, we are going to get something like this.1239

For example, let's go ahead and do this for water.1250

For water, this is 0 degrees Celsius; this is 100 degrees Celsius.1256

Let me go ahead and do a blue line.1262

The blue line is now going to represent the water this time with salt added.1264

This is with NaCl.1271

What happens is as you can see the freezing point now decreases.1274

The boiling point now increases.1280

This is bpnew which is greater than 100 degrees Celsius.1286

This is freezing pointnew; that is going to be less than 0 degrees Celsius.1291

Freezing point depression, boiling point elevation; let's go ahead and explain why.1298

Basically this is telling me the following; that more energy needed for vaporization to occur.1305

As I toss sodium chloride in the water, we are introducing more attractions, more attractive forces.1322

This is really due to more attractive forces between solute and solvent.1330

If all of a sudden the attractive forces shot up, we have to supply more energy in the1343

form of heat to overcome those attractive forces to induce vaporization, hence a higher boiling point.1348

For the freezing point, we actually need a cooler temperature.1362

The colder temperature needed because what happens is the following.1368

When we reach a colder temperature and try to induce freezing, like molecules tend to interact with each other.1377

What I mean by that is the following.1398

That water is going to want to interact with itself.1399

NaCl is going to want to interact with itself.1406

In order for the solute and solvent to separate out like this, we need to1411

remove the thermal energy so that interactions like that will be minimized.1417

A cooler temperature helps to minimize what we call unwanted interactions.1424

Water sticks with water; sodium chloride sticks with sodium chloride.1440

Freezing process can occur where we eventually result in solidification.1444

Cooler temperature minimizes unwanted interactions so that solidification can occur.1451

Again this is boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.1469

We actually have two equations that can help us through this.1475

They are the following.1480

The change in the freezing point is going to be equal to some constant K times lowercase m times i.1483

I am going to call this KF.1496

The change in boiling point is equal to some constant KB times m times i.1499

What these are is the following.1507

i is what we call the van't hoff factor.1510

This is going to be proportional to number of ions from solute.1518

m is just the molality.1529

Finally K's are just going to be constants unique to the solute.1535

But what you see is that the temperatures are directly related to the amounts.1542

Temperature is directly related to the amount.1551

The more solute you have in solution, the greater the change.1555

The more solute you have, the lower the freezing point.1560

The more solute you have, the higher the boiling point, the greater the ΔT.1563

Once again these are called boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.1569

The final colligative property, that is the final property that is dependent on relative solute amount is what we call osmotic pressure.1575

Before we get into osmotic pressure, let's first go ahead and define osmosis.1588

Osmosis is the flow of solvent through a semipermeable membrane into a more concentrated solution.1593

In other words, solvent naturally flows from a dilute area to a more concentrated area.1599

The typical diagram to illustrate this is the following.1632

Let's say we had a container; in the container is this barrier.1637

This barrier is what we call a semipermeable membrane; what this is is the following.1642

It allows only certain sized particles through.1652

Once again it allows only certain sized particles through.1663

In this case, it is going to be solvent molecules only because we are going to assume that a solvent1667

like water is going to be relatively smaller to a much bigger and heavier solute compound such as sodium chloride.1673

Let's say initially that these two regions which are separated by a semipermeable membrane have equal levels of liquid.1685

However let's say that one side was just H2O.1698

On the other side, we had Na+, Cl-, and H2O.1702

That means this side represents my concentrated side.1709

This side represents my dilute side.1717

If we allow this to proceed, after some time, we are actually going to get a change in water levels because of osmosis.1721

Solvent is going to flow from the dilute area to the more concentrated area.1734

In other words, I am going to get solvent going this way.1739

What that results in is my dilute side is going to drop in volume.1742

My concentrated side is going to increase in volume because of the presence of more solvent molecules.1752

This is what is known as osmosis.1762

The colligative property is what we call π; this is osmotic pressure.1767

Pretty much what osmotic pressure is, it is the pressure needed to be1776

applied to prevent the flow of osmosis; to prevent osmosis from occurring.1785

π is equal to i times M times R times T where i is once again that van't hoff factor that we talked about.1801

Again that is going to be proportional to the number of solute ions.1815

Big M is the molarity.1823

R is going to be our universal gas constant, 0.08206 liters atmosphere K mole.1827

Finally temperature is going to be the kelvin temperature.1836

But as you can see, that π is directly proportional to M and to i.1841

Basically if you have an area of great concentration where you have a1851

lot of solute, osmosis is going to happen very easily and very readily.1857

I am going to need much more pressure to stop that process from occurring.1862

Again this is called osmosis.1868

Let's go ahead and summarize our presentation on solutions and their behavior.1873

Solution concentration we found is often expressed in four ways--molarity, molality, weight percent, and as ppm.1882

Again weight percent is really what we see commercially.1891

Ppm is really for dilute solutions, very very dilute solutions.1897

We saw the rule that like dissolves like.1903

In other words, polar solutions are going to be miscible with other polar solutions.1908

Nonpolar solutions are going to be to miscible with other nonpolar solutions.1913

Simply put, polar and nonpolar do not mix, forming heterogeneous mixtures.1918

What we saw was the traditional portrayal of fat oil plus water giving us a heterogeneous mixture.1923

We also discussed factors that influence the solubility.1932

The solubilities of gases and solids in a solution we found are influenced by pressure and by temperature.1936

Remember that for temperature, it is going to be opposite for solids and gases.1943

It is an opposite effect.1952

Finally we also discussed colligative properties.1956

We saw that colligative properties are not really dependent on the identity of the compound itself but really just the relative solute amount.1958

Now that that is our summary for solution behavior, let's get into a pair of sample problems.1970

Calculate the vapor pressure of water at 20 degrees Celsius in a solution1978

prepared by dissolving ten grams of sucrose in 100 grams of water.1981

You are told that the vapor pressure of pure water at this temperature is 17.5 torr.1986

Let's go ahead and write out the equation.1992

This is pressure is equal to mole fraction times P0.1994

This is going to be the vapor pressure of solution.1999

This is the mole fraction of solute.2004

This is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.2014

The vapor pressure of the pure solvent is given to us to be 17.54 torr.2025

x is the mole fraction... I am sorry... not of the solute.2033

But it is going to be the mole fraction of the solvent.2038

What we see is the following.2042

That as the mole fraction of solvent, as x goes down, the vapor pressure also drops.2043

As we toss more and more sucrose into this water, the water is going to be less and less volatile.2055

Its vapor pressure is going to drop.2062

All we have to do is plug it in, fill in the equation.2065

What we need therefore is the mole fraction of sucrose and the mole fraction of water.2069

x of sucrose is going to be equal to the following.2075

The moles of sucrose divided by the moles of sucrose plus moles of H2O.2082

Let's get the moles of sucrose.2097

That is going to be 10 grams of sucrose times 1 mole divided by the molar mass of sucrose.2098

Sucrose is given to us right here, C12H22O11.2106

That is just going to be molar mass of sucrose.2113

That is going to be divided by the total moles.2118

That is going to be divided by 10.0 grams over molar mass of sucrose plus the moles of water2121

which is going to be 100.0 grams of water divided by the molar mass of water, 18.016 grams per mole.2131

That is going to give us the mole fraction of sucrose.2141

To get the mole fraction of the water therefore, every time I have a fractional counterpart, the sum has to equal to 1.2146

The mole fraction of water is just 1 minus the mole fraction of sucrose.2156

That is it.2162

All I do, I plug that directly into P is equal to xP0 to get the vapor pressure of the water.2163

As you can see, it is going to drop because of the added sucrose.2173

P is less than P0.2179

That is going to be sample problem one, vapor pressure lowering.2182

Let's now move on to the final sample problem.2189

What is the molality of C6H12O6 in the solution prepared by dissolving 90.5 grams in 250 grams of water?2192

Remember molality is lowercase m.2201

That is equal to the moles of solute divided by kilograms of the solution.2203

This is going to be equal to the solute is the C6H12O6.2212

The water is the solvent.2219

The moles of solute, let's go ahead and get that.2223

That is 90.5 grams of C6H12O6 times 1 mole divided by its molar mass which is approximately 180 grams.2226

I am going to take that. I am going to divide it by the kilograms of solvent.2238

The total amount of solvent we have is 90.5 plus the 250.0 grams.2242

I want kg; I want kilograms.2251

I am going to take this; I am just going to multiply by 10-3.2252

When all is said and done, we get our answer in blank molal of C6H12O6.2259

That was sample problem two and simply using the molality equation to calculate the concentration.2270

This concludes our lecture and presentation on solution behavior.2278

I will see you next time on Educator.com.2283

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