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Bryan Cardella

Bryan Cardella

The Big Picture of Environmental Science

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Table of Contents

Section 1: Introduction
Major Themes in AP Environmental Science

36m 44s

Intro
0:00
6 Main Themes
0:05
Human Population Growth
0:17
Sustainability and Carrying Capacity
0:40
Global Solutions
1:33
Urbanization
2:14
People and Nature
2:35
Science and Ethics
3:10
Human Population Growth
4:03
Largest Increase Began in the Last Half of the 20th Century
4:15
Famine and Food Crises
6:41
Sustainability and Carrying Capacity
9:29
Objective is Sustainability
9:33
Sustainable Global Economy
10:17
Carrying Capacity
13:47
Global Issues and Solutions
14:49
Global Perspective
14:53
Gaia Hypothesis
15:57
Urbanization
17:04
Trend of Moving Into Cities
17:06
Tokyo Currently has the Largest Population in a Single City
18:13
People and Nature
20:04
Misconceptions
20:19
Sustainable Environment and Sustainable Economy
23:05
Science and Ethics
24:12
Intellectual Standards
24:20
Precautionary Principle
29:41
Justifications
30:46
Scientific Method

35m

Intro
0:00
Origin of the Scientific Method
0:04
Babylonia and Ancient Egypt
0:14
Western Tradition
1:35
Scientific Revolution
2:30
Francis Bacon
3:35
Science is About Knowing
3:53
Disprovability
5:19
Steps of the Scientific Method
5:43
Observe
5:47
Formulate a Questions
6:26
Hypothesize
6:54
Design an Experiment
7:26
Collect Data
9:48
Interpret Data
10:52
Draw Conclusions
11:02
Future Experiments
11:29
Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning
14:21
Inductive Reasoning
14:25
Deductive Reasoning
15:39
Proof with Inductive Reasoning
17:38
Theories and Models
19:00
Scientific Theory
19:02
Models
20:08
Uncertainty and Accuracy
22:08
Objectivity is the Goal
22:39
Degree of Uncertainty
24:02
Accuracy
25:59
Precision
26:50
Pseudoscience
28:48
Pseudo
28:51
Examples
28:59
The Big Picture of Environmental Science

27m 22s

Intro
0:00
Types of Systems
0:05
Closed Systems
0:12
Open Systems
1:09
Static System
1:54
Dynamic System
3:02
Open Systems
3:28
Steady State
3:41
Nonsteady State
4:08
Balance of Nature
4:34
Residence Time
5:40
Feedback
10:14
Negative Feedback
10:49
Positive Feedback
12:18
Types of Flows
14:18
Flow vs. Flux
14:28
Linear Flow
15:18
Nonlinear Flow
15:46
Lag Time
16:40
Curves
17:55
Overshoots, Collapse, and Consequences
19:35
Overshoot
19:46
Collapse
20:05
Consequences
21:00
Earth as a System
23:19
Environmental Unity
23:22
Uniformitarianism
24:40
Gaia Hypothesis
26:47
Section 2: Populations and the Environment
The Dynamic Human Population

47m 15s

Intro
0:00
Populations Introduction
0:05
Population Dynamics
0:10
Population
0:25
Species
1:02
Demography
1:47
Abundance, Birth and Death Rate, Growth Rate, Age Structure
1:59
Human Population Curves
2:28
Four Phases
3:46
Hunter and Gatherer
3:48
Agriculture
4:18
Industrial Rev
5:29
Modern Era
6:33
Paris Example
7:27
Population Key Terms
8:26
Crude Birth, Death, and Growth Rate
8:31
Fertility
9:20
General Fertility Rate
9:29
Total Fertility Rate
10:05
Age-Specific Birth rate
10:37
Cause-Specific Death Rate
11:02
Morbidity
11:39
Incidence
11:46
Prevalence
12:10
Case Fatality Rate
12:27
Rate of Natural Increase
13:16
Doubling Time
13:46
Infant Mortality Rate
13:58
Life Expectancy at Birth
14:43
GNP Per Capita
15:34
Human Population Growth
15:51
Doubling Time
15:53
Logistic Growth
17:46
Three Possible Futures
18:53
Calculating Population Change
20:23
Population
20:05
Growth Rate
21:57
Doubling Time
22:36
Age Structure
23:03
Proportion of Each Ages Group in the Population
23:04
Examples
23:42
Demographic Transition
27:31
Three Stage Pattern of Change in Birth/ Death rates in Developed Nations
27:33
Crude Rate Over Time and Population Size Over Time
27:49
Life Expectancy and Death
32:01
Maximum Lifetime vs. Life Expectancy
32:08
Acute Disease
33:21
Chronic Disease
34:00
Crude Death Rate Differences
34:35
Human Population's Effect on Earth
35:02
Factor of the Number of People and Each Person's Effect
35:09
Formula
37:07
Key Is Improving the Standard of Living
38:24
Human Carrying Capacity
39:02
Max Number of People That Can Live on Earth
39:07
Limited by These Factors
39:51
Estimated in Different Ways
42:45
Zero Population Growth
45:15
Possible?
45:18
Several Approaches
45:29
Ecosystems

35m 50s

Intro
0:00
Key Terms
0:05
Ecosystem
0:36
Community Effect
1:05
Cycling of Chemical Elements and Flow of Energy
2:43
Food Webs
4:18
Network of Food Chains
4:21
Trophic Level
4:47
Ecosystem Boundaries
6:10
Energy Flow
7:20
Ecosystem Energy Flow
7:27
Laws of Thermodynamics
8:05
Chemistry of Energy Flow
9:48
Biomass and Biological Production
11:51
Biomass
11:57
Biological Production
12:17
Primary Production vs. Secondary Production
14:01
Energy Efficiency
14:30
Succession, Part I
17:36
Ecological succession
17:42
Examples
21:18
Commonalities of Succession
27:37
Chemical Cycling
29:48
Facilitation
32:17
Interference
32:26
Section 3: Earth's Cycles and Environmental Change
Earth Cycles

42m 55s

Intro
0:00
Earth History
0:04
About 4.5 Billion Years Old
0:07
Only Plant in Our Solar System with Liquid Water, Plate Tectonics, and Life
0:56
Atmosphere
1:51
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
2:17
Characteristics of a Living Planet
2:21
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
3:18
Planet Acts as a Pump to Keep the Atmosphere, Rocks, and Oceans from this Equilibrium
3:28
The Rise of Oxygen
4:29
Earth Had a Lot Less Oxygen Prior to 2.3 Billion Years Ago
4:47
Evidence is in Pyrite
5:01
Photosynthesis
7:03
Cells: Then and Now
7:55
Fermentation
8:15
Prokaryotes
9:08
Eukaryotes
10:18
Molecules of Life
11:19
Macronutrients
11:20
Micronutrients
12:41
Limiting Factors
13:10
Geologic Cycles
13:42
Includes These Cycles
13:46
About the Cycling of Molecules Throughout the Earth
14:00
Movement Through a Cycle
14:23
Flow
14:26
Flux
14:29
Residence Time
14:41
Source
15:06
Sink
15:08
Example
15:17
Tectonic Cycle
15:36
The Lithosphere
15:45
Lithosphere is Composed of Plates
16:03
Plate Tectonics
16:09
Types of Plate Boundaries
17:23
Hydrologic Cycle
19:02
Transfer of Water
19:10
Key Terms
19:20
Driven by Solar Energy
20:34
97% in Oceans
20:48
Drainage Basins
21:20
Rock Cycle
21:45
Numerous Processes That Produce Rocks and Soils
21:46
Rocks are Classified: Igneous, Metamorphic, Sedimentary
22:01
Intro to Biogeochemical Cycles
25:05
Includes the Complete Path That a Chemical takes on Earth
25:11
General Facts
25:30
Carbon Cycle
26:29
Basic Building Block of Life
26:30
Carbon Cycles Through the Biota
26:57
Pathways and Reservoirs
27:55
Carbon-Silicate Cycle
31:10
Nitrogen Cycle
33:22
Nitrogen is Converted to an Inorganic Compound
33:32
Nitrogen Fixation
34:00
Denitrification
35:06
Symbioses
35:30
Industrial Fertilizer
35:40
Pollution
36:06
Phosphorus Cycle
36:28
One of the 'Big Six' Required for Life
36:30
Slow Rate of Transfer
37:39
Tale of Guano
38:14
Bone Valley
38:36
Rising Phosphorus Prices
39:14
Potential Solutions
40:44
Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Other Disasters

1h 8m 31s

Intro
0:00
Geologic Overview
0:06
Time Scales
0:13
Key Principles of Geologic Time Scale
0:39
Earth's Crust
7:42
Biosphere, Hydrosphere, and Internal Structure
7:50
Crust
8:29
Moho, Mantle, and Core
9:53
Moho
10:00
Mantle
11:24
Core
11:47
Plate Tectonics Summary
12:14
Continental Drift Theory
12:17
Five Main Factors to This Theory
13:26
Seafloor Spreading
16:12
Boundary Types
19:18
Results of Convergence
22:26
Oceanic Continental Convergence
22:36
Oceanic Oceanic Convergence
23:38
Earthquake Basics
24:47
Focus vs. Epicenter
25:24
Richter Scale
27:38
Seismograph, Seismogram
28:59
Earthquake Severity
31:04
What It Depends On
31:06
Severity Related to the Scale
31:36
Hurricanes and Tornadoes
35:56
Hurricanes
35:58
Tornadoes
38:19
Volcano Basics
39:24
Active Volcanoes Produce Magma at the Surface
39:25
95% Are At Subduction Zones and Mid-Oceanic Ridges
40:21
Common Gases Released
40:53
Main Types of Volcano
42:40
Volcano Structure and Case Studies
47:24
Parts of the Volcano
47:27
Case Studies
50:03
Erosion
51:27
Natural and/or Human-caused
51:48
3 Common Types
55:01
Desertification
55:53
Salinization
57:16
Waterlogging
58:29
Pesticides: Good and Bad
59:52
Pest
1:00:24
Positive
1:00:53
Negative
1:02:11
Types of Pesticides and Alternatives
1:04:36
Pesticide Types
1:04:42
Alternatives to Pesticide Use
1:06:05
The Economics of Environmental Issues

35m 19s

Intro
0:00
Environmental Economics Overview
0:05
Policy Instruments
0:35
Tangible and Intangible Factors
1:17
Public-Service Functions
2:29
The Commons
5:16
A Common is Land Owned Publicly
5:19
Tragedy of the Commons
5:45
Requires Cooperation and Unselfish Behavior to Work
6:59
Arctic Sea and Most of Antarctica
7:26
Atmosphere
8:14
National Parks
8:43
Resources and Profits
10:12
Resource Sustainability
10:17
Maximum Profit
10:55
Whale Example
13:49
Indirect vs. Direct Costs
14:14
Indirect Cost
14:20
Direct Costs
15:30
The Balancing Act
16:18
Natural Beauty and Its Cost
17:15
Landscape Aesthetics
17:19
Unity
19:30
Vividness
19:39
Variety
19:42
Value in the Future
20:18
'A Bird in the hand is Worth Two in the Bush'
20:20
Future Value is Hard to Calculate
21:34
Rule of Thumb
21:39
Risk-Benefit Analysis
22:58
Riskiness of Present Action is Weighed Against the Benefit of the Action
23:01
Risk of Death from Various Causes
24:15
Fixing Air Pollution vs. Increased Ambulance Service
26:08
Cap, Trade, and Legal Controls
28:15
Example
28:18
Ways to Control Emissions
29:03
Example: Fisheries
31:36
Biological Diversity

49m 57s

Intro
0:00
The Basics
0:05
Biological Diversity
0:07
Reasons People Value Biodiversity
1:12
Kinds of Diversity
3:46
Genetic Diversity
3:49
Habitat Diversity
4:45
Species Diversity
5:13
Species Overview
7:01
1.5 Million Species named
7:15
Relative Abundance
8:48
Domains
10:05
Archaea
10:45
Bacteria
12:20
Eukarya
12:42
Evolution of Life
13:16
Biological Evolution
13:19
Mutation
14:35
Natural Selection
17:38
More on Natural Selection
20:41
Inheritance of Genes
20:46
Environmental Variability
21:45
Differential Reproduction
21:57
Influence of the Environment on Survival
22:08
Migration and Genetic Drift
22:53
Migration
22:59
Adaptive Radiation
23:11
Genetic Drift
25:43
Founder Effect
26:24
Competition and Niches
28:05
Ecological Niche
28:10
Competitive Exclusion Principle
28:34
Tale of the Flour Beetles
29:53
Symbiosis
31:46
Living Together
31:48
Symbiont
33:20
Examples
33:27
Geography's Effect on Biology
36:24
Biogeography
36:30
Biotic Provinces
36:45
Biome Summary
39:22
A Kind of Ecosystem
39:26
Relationship Between Precipitation and Latitude
39:42
Patterns of Evolution
42:18
Divergent Evolution
42:19
Convergent Evolution
43:48
Invasive Species and Biological Invasions
44:47
Potential Benefits
47:26
Why is This a Serious Problem in Many Cases?
48:31
Section 4: Impact of Human Activity
Ecological Restoration

26m 1s

Intro
0:00
General Principles
0:05
Ecological Restoration
0:07
Ecosystems are Dynamic
0:15
No Simple Set of Rules
0:57
Consideration of Ecosystem Geology
1:12
Adaptive Management is Necessary
1:27
Goals of Restoration
2:30
What is Natural?
2:32
Goals Need to Be Reasonable and Realistic
4:22
Rivers and Streams
5:23
Degraded by Urbanization, Agriculture, Timber Harvesting, and Channelization
5:28
Kissimmee River in Florida
6:48
Wolves/ Elk/ Streams in Yellowstone
9:12
Wetlands
11:16
Cradle of Civilization
12:18
By 2000, 7% of Wetlands Remained
12:48
58% Increase Since 1970s
13:53
Prairies
14:08
Once the Most Abundant Ecosystem in the U.S.
14:11
Restoration Process
14:28
Great Plains
15:47
Drastic Reduction in Bison
15:54
Fires
16:58
Island Foxes on Santa Cruz Island
17:55
Kept as Pets
18:23
1990s: Fox Population Plummeted
19:38
Steps to Restoration
21:48
Reclamation
22:41
Reclamation
22:44
Potential to Disrupt Food Webs
22:56
Ex: British Peak District National Park
23:35
Ex: Butchart Gardens
25:25
Pollution & Environmental Health

52m 47s

Intro
0:00
Disease and Toxicity
0:05
Disease
0:10
Pollution
2:41
Toxin
4:44
Point Sources vs. Nonpoint Sources
5:33
Mobile Sources
6:24
Disease Caused by Microbes
6:41
Microbes
6:48
Epidemic
10:45
Pandemic
11:05
Toxic Heavy Metals
11:40
Heavy Metals
11:49
Found in Soil or Water
11:58
Body Burden
12:20
Biomagnification
14:45
Bioaccumulation
14:52
Examples
15:38
Organic Compounds, POPs, and HAAs
18:53
Organic Compounds
19:00
Persistent Organic Pollutant
19:37
Hormonally Active Agent
24:33
Thermal Pollution
27:19
Heat Pollution
27:23
Acute or Chronic, Natural or Human-Caused
27:37
Example: Electric Power Plants
28:04
Particulates
30:08
Dust Released into the Atmosphere
30:10
Examples
30:39
Electromagnetic Fields
32:35
EMFs
32:36
How Dangerous They Are
32:49
Connection Between EMFs and Cancer in Children
32:55
Noise Pollution
35:20
Unwanted Sounds
35:23
How Sound Travels
35:33
Examples
37:06
Pollutant Exposure and Assessing Risk
41:05
Dose, Response, and Dose Response
41:08
LD-50
41:59
ED-50
43:04
TD-50
43:34
Threshold
44:09
Ecological Gradient
44:54
Tolerance
45:57
Risk Assessment
47:29
Fluoride Example
49:07
Agriculture & Aquaculture

1h 9m 54s

Intro
0:00
Agroecosystem Basics
0:06
Ways It Differs from Natural Ecosystems
0:26
Plowing
4:05
Feeding the World
5:13
Undernourishment
6:14
Malnourishment
6:48
Give a Man a Fish
9:55
Crops
11:01
Crop Data
11:10
Small Grain Production
11:44
Forage
13:12
Livestock
14:45
Worldwide
14:47
Rangeland
16:19
Pasture
16:39
Ecological Considerations
20:18
Soils
22:29
Not Just Dirt
22:31
Soil Fertility
28:20
Restoring Soils
29:44
Fertilizers
31:38
Use of Organic Fertilizers
31:39
Industrial Fertilizers
32:05
Macronutrients and Micronutrients
32:43
Limiting Factors
33:48
Synergistic Effects
34:50
Pests and Pesticides
36:29
Total Losses from Pests Can be Huge
36:30
Known to Destroy Up to 1/3 of the Potential Harvest and 1/10 of the Harvested Crop
38:41
Arrival of Pesticides
39:13
Broad-Spectrum Toxins
39:16
Petroleum-Based Sprays
40:07
Artificial Organic Compounds
41:16
Integrated Pest Management and Biological Control
42:43
The Future of Agriculture
46:22
Increased Production Per Acre
46:32
Increased Farmland Area
47:04
New Crops and Hybrids
47:51
Better Irrigation
48:19
Organic Farming
48:57
Vegetarianism/ Veganism
49:20
GMOs
51:02
Genetically Modified Organisms
51:11
New Hybrids
53:00
Terminator Gene
54:39
Gene Transfer
56:06
Aquaculture
58:05
Popular Animals
58:30
Importance on Land
59:52
Fish Ponds
1:01:16
Mariculture
1:01:51
Farming of Ocean Fish
1:02:05
Oysters and Mussels
1:02:19
Negatives
1:03:23
The Future of Water Supply
1:04:06
Food Production Must be Doubled by 2025
1:04:28
20% of Water to Sustain Crops and Livestock Worldwide
1:05:21
Potential Solutions
1:06:15
Will Malthus Be Correct…?
1:08:20
Forests, Parks, & the Wilderness

52m 12s

Intro
0:00
Forests Introduction
0:06
Silviculture
0:48
Conflict on Forests
1:44
Forests in the United States
4:12
Commercial Grade Forests
4:17
Ownership
5:16
Likelihood of Indefinite Production of Timber by Forests
6:14
Worldwide Effect of Forests
6:50
Changes in the Color of Earth's Surface
8:17
Warmth
8:49
Increase in the Amount of Water Transpired and Evaporated
9:05
Carbon Dioxide Gas Concentration Changes
9:27
Change in Surface Roughness on the Earth
9:46
Ecology of Forests
10:37
Niche
10:40
White Birch
11:37
Douglas Fir
12:06
Determine Which Trees Will Last in Various Areas/ Climates
12:31
Forest Management
13:17
Stands
13:20
Old-Growth Forest
14:44
Second Growth Forest
15:22
Harvesting Forests
17:20
Site Quality
17:24
Tree Rings
20:30
Harvesting
21:30
More on Cutting
24:48
Clear-Cutting is Controversial
24:51
Clear-Cutting is Neither All Good Nor All Bad
26:25
Plantations
27:04
Stand of One Species Planted in Straight Rows
27:05
Maintained with Fertilization, Often by Helicopter
27:20
Could be Used More Readily to Supply the World's Timber
27:40
Sustainability and Practices
28:48
Sustainability
28:50
Certification of Forestry
29:28
Banning of Import of Wood From Unsustainable Forests
30:00
Deforestation
30:37
Estimated Annual Loss
30:43
Has Lad to More Erosion, Runoff, Floods, and Sediment Ending Up in Water
31:52
Brief History
32:43
Causes of Deforestation
33:31
Parks vs. Nature Reserves
35:04
Park
35:08
Nature Preserve
36:05
Boundaries
36:32
Why Parks and Nature Preserves are Here
38:14
Preservation of Nature, Wildlife, and Ecosystems
38:21
Conservation of Biological Diversity and a Habitat
38:50
Maintenance of Wildlife for Hunting
39:09
Aesthetics and the Identity of a Region
39:31
Maintenances for Recreation and Tourism
39:49
Maintenance for Scientific Research Purposes
40:04
Conflicts Related to Parks
41:55
Size, Access, Types of Activities
41:59
Interactions Between People and Wildlife
43:40
How Much Land Should Be Included?
45:27
Wilderness
46:55
Undisturbed by People
46:56
Some Countries Have Non Left
47:06
Natural vs. Naturalistic
48:24
Managing Wilderness
49:30
Wildlife & Endangered Species

39m 18s

Intro
0:00
Sustainable Yields and Viable Populations
0:06
Maximum Sustainable Yield
0:11
Minimum Viable Population
0:31
Optimum Sustainable Population
1:36
Examples
2:10
Carrying Capacity
6:47
Logistic Carrying Capacity is Reached
6:59
Number of Births in Unit Time is Equal to Number of Deaths
8:11
Managing Wildlife
8:25
IUCN 4 Principle Approach
8:51
Time Series
11:12
Age Structure and Harvests
13:50
Age Structure
13:52
Harvests as an Estimate of Numbers
15:09
Fisheries
16:41
Fish Provide 16% of World's Protein
16:44
Fish Harvests Increased Greatly in Mid-20th Century
18:49
Can Fisheries Be Sustainable?
20:08
World's Fish Catch Went from 39 to 68 Million MT
20:12
Fish Harvests Declining
21:08
Endangered Species
22:51
Why/ How Do We Want to Save These Species?
22:53
IUCN's Red List of Endangered Species
25:20
Extinction: Kinds and Causes
28:19
Local vs. Global Extinction
28:20
Causes of Extinction
29:16
Recovered Species
33:14
Overabundance and Human Fault
34:46
Too Many Individuals for a Species
34:50
Humans Affect Chances of Extinction
36:54
Section 5: Energy, Water, and Air
Energy

34m 48s

Intro
0:00
Past Struggles with Energy
0:04
Ancient Greece
0:28
Ancient Rome
2:06
Energy Basics
3:44
Work
3:45
Laws of Thermodynamics
5:51
Laws of Efficiency
7:57
Thermal Efficiency
10:50
U.S. Energy Consumption: Now and Later
12:14
1950s
12:21
1970s
13:07
2009
13:34
2030
13:55
2050
14:03
Energy Sources
14:16
U.S. Uses 20% of Energy
14:17
Alternative
15:44
Renewable
16:46
Conservation of Energy
17:37
Conservation
17:39
Energy Efficiency
19:26
Cogeneration
20:34
Building Design
21:13
Values and Choices
22:31
Sustainable-Energy Policy
25:38
Not Business as Usual
26:02
Energy Sustainability Policy
26:38
Micropower
30:08
Smaller, Distributed Systems for Electricity Production
30:09
Homes Have Their Own Small Power Systems
31:12
Distributive Power Systems
32:33
Fossil Fuels

1h 2m 35s

Intro
0:00
Fossil Fuel Basics
0:04
Matter Is Not Completely Oxidized
0:37
Converted Via Chemical Reactions
1:12
In a Sense, It's Stored Solar Energy
1:45
Fossil Fuel Usage Worldwide
2:33
90% of the Energy Used Worldwide
2:36
World Energy Consumption Grew
2:52
Oil and Natural Gas Make up 70-80% of Primary Energy Usage
4:14
China and Coal
4:53
Crude Oil and Natural Gas Origins
5:09
Petroleum
5:14
Elevated Temperature and Pressure Facilitate the Production of the Oil or Natural Gas
5:41
Source Rock vs. Reservoir Rock
6:05
Upward Migration
7:34
Petroleum Production
9:09
Primary Production
9:10
Enhanced Recovery
9:32
Proven Oil Reserves
10:02
Overall Oil Resource Estimates
11:06
Petroleum Use Now and Later
12:06
Scientists Suggest That Proven Oil Reserves Will Only Last Several More Decades
12:10
Potential Crisis?
12:55
Natural Gas
13:59
Search for This Resource Has Not Been Around As Long As Oil
14:02
Worldwide Estimate
15:14
Coal-Bed Methane
18:32
Formation of Coal
18:37
Utah and Wyoming Have the Largest Known Coal-Bed Methane Sources in the U.S.
19:04
Benefits and Concerns
19:53
Black Shale (Tight) Natural Gas
22:47
Black Devonian Shale
22:51
Recovery is Costly and Controversial
23:27
Methane Hydrates
25:14
Exist Beneath Ocean Floor
25:17
White, Ice-like Compound of CH4 in a Frozen Water
25:30
Giant Craters from Methane Eruptions
25:59
Potentially Contain 2x the Energy of All the Other Fossil Fuels on Earth
26:29
Oil's Effect on the Environment
27:34
Use of Land for Wells, Pipes, Storage
27:45
Pollution of Surface Waters and Groundwater
27:59
Accidental Release of Mass Amounts of Oil
28:17
Accidental Release of Air Pollutants
28:56
Release of Drilling Muds
29:01
Land Subsidence
29:26
Loss/ Disruption of Ecosystems
29:42
Refining, Delivering and Using Oil
29:57
Fractional Distillation Oil Has Its Issues
30:00
Creating 'Fine Oil' Can Have its Environmental Costs
30:58
Delivery on Land Via Pipelines or in Ocean by Tankers
31:46
ANWR: Should We Drill?
32:51
Pros of Drilling
33:35
Cons of Drilling
35:08
Coal Introduction
37:39
Partial Decomposed Vegetation, Buried in Sediment, Can Eventually Become Coal
37:45
Classified As
38:54
Low Sulfur Content is Important
39:50
Coal Mining
44:42
Thousands of Square Kilometer in the U.S. Disturbed
44:45
Strip Mining
45:52
Mountaintop Removal of Coal
48:29
Growing Concern Over This Practice
48:32
Mountaintops are Destroyed, Valleys are Filled with Waste Rock and Mine Waste, Flood Hazard Increased
49:17
October 2000, SE Kentucky
49:54
Proponents Emphasize $ Value to Local Economy
50:47
Experts Claim That Reclamation Success Stories are Few and Far Between
50:56
Underground Mining of Coal
51:20
Accounts for About 40% of the Coal Mined in the U.S.
51:21
Dangers to Miners Are Well Documented
51:34
Environmental Issues
52:05
Transporting Coal
53:00
The Future of Coal
53:51
Burning Coal Produces Almost 50% of Electricity Used and 25% of Total Energy Consumed in U.S.
53:52
Recent Legislation Has Created a Demand For the Following
54:02
Oil Shale and Tar Sands
58:04
Oil Shale
58:19
Tar Sands
59:43
Alternative Energy

41m 46s

Intro
0:00
Non-renewable vs. Renewable Energy
0:05
Alternative Energy
0:06
Non-renewables
0:29
Renewables
1:03
Solar Energy Basics
1:37
Worldwide
1:45
Passive Solar Energy Systems
2:44
Active Solar Energy Systems
4:02
Active Solar Energy
4:21
Require Mechanical Power to Move Air and/or Water
4:22
Solar Collectors
4:32
Photovoltaics
7:58
Solar Thermal Generators
8:54
Solar One
9:17
Pros
10:54
Cons
12:10
Fuel Cells - A Great Alternative for Cars
13:11
Fuel Cars
13:32
The Only Waste is Water
16:37
Water Power Basics
17:13
Successful Since the Time of the Roman Empire
17:17
Hydroelectric Power Harnesses the Power of Water Stored Behind Dams
17:34
Pump Storage System
18:12
Small-Scale and Environmental Impact
19:25
Large Dam Locations and Use
19:32
Environmental Impact
20:49
Ocean Energy
21:54
Tidal Power
22:07
Flood Tide
22:38
Ebb Tide
22:57
Concerns
23:33
Wind Power
25:12
In Use with the Ancient Chinese and Persians
25:13
18 km/hr Winds on Average
26:24
Today's Cheapest Alternative Energy
28:18
Pros and Cons
28:36
Biofuels
32:13
Energy Recovered from Biomass
32:14
Oldest Fuel Used by Humans
32:47
Pros and Cons
33:46
Geothermal Energy
37:13
Deep-Earth
37:22
Shallow-Earth
38:21
Geothermal's Future and the Environment
39:39
Geyers Geothermal Field
39:40
Deep-Earth and Shallow-Earth in the Future
40:18
Environmental Concerns
40:37
Nuclear Energy

31m 59s

Intro
0:00
Nuclear Fission
0:04
Atoms Split Into Two or More Smaller Nuclei Along with By-Products
0:13
Explosion
0:39
Amount of Energy Contained in Nuclear Fuel Is 10 Million Times More Than Coal and Petroleum
1:31
1950s-60s Cesium-137
2:36
Nuclear Fuel
6:17
U-235
6:26
U-238
8:42
Pu-239
9:11
Electricity Production
10:46
Reasons for Recent Decline
10:49
Currently Provides 15% of Global Electricity
12:49
2007
13:20
Arguments in Favor of Nuclear Energy for Electricity
13:31
Nuclear Reactor Basics
15:18
Core
15:33
Fuel
16:36
Control Rods
16:46
Moderator
17:07
Coolant
17:22
Water Reactors
17:37
Light-Water Reactors
17:50
Heavy-Water Reactors
20:08
Graphite-Moderated and Exotics Reactors
21:40
Graphite-Moderated
21:41
Exotic Reactors
22:21
Overview of Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy
22:48
Pros
22:54
Cons
22:36
Safety Issues (and Chernobyl)
25:01
Up to 50,000 Sites Within the U.S. Have Radioactive Contamination and Require Cleanup
25:05
Estimated Nuclear Health Risks Per Year
25:58
Chernobyl, Ukraine
26:48
Nuclear Fusion
30:12
Extremely High Temps Can Force Nuclei of Lightweight Atoms to Fuse Together, Causing Large Amounts of Energy to be Released
30:22
For Contrast
30:43
The Same Electricity Production from Nuclear Fusion Would Create Only 4 lbs Harmless Helium as Waste
31:19
Water Resources & Use

1h 5m 34s

Intro
0:00
Water Basics
0:05
Polar Covalently Bonded Molecule
0:22
Hydrogen Bonds are Between Neighboring H2Os
0:59
High Specific Heat
1:53
Universal Solvent
3:04
High Surface Tension
3:40
Cohesion Adhesion
4:18
Solid Form is Less Dense Than the Liquid Form
5:22
Filters Out Harmful UV Radiation
6:12
Sunlight Penetrates Water to Variable Depths
6:29
Hydrologics: A Global Perspective
6:39
Earth's Water
8:13
Freshwater
8:25
Fresh Surface Water
9:16
Projection
9:57
Water Supply
10:48
Water Budget
10:49
Missouri River Example
12:27
Surface Water Supply Can Never Be As High As Average Annual Runoff
14:08
Groundwater and Streams
14:56
Groundwater
14:59
Recharge Zones vs. Discharge Zones
15:37
Aquifer
16:20
Streams: Effluent or Influent, Perennial or Ephemeral
18:33
Groundwater Use and Problems
20:04
Lots of Shallow Groundwater Available in U.S.
20:08
Groundwater Withdrawals Exceeds Natural Inflow in Many Areas
20:51
Area With the Worst Overdraft Problem
22:01
Desalination
23:45
More Fresh Water Can be Made Available Through This Process
23:49
Expensive
24:57
Concerns
25:41
Off-Stream and In-Stream Use
26:16
Off-Stream
26:26
In-Stream
27:23
Aral Sea Wake-Up Call
31:16
Dying Due to Diverting River Water for Agricultural Use
31:28
Environmental Hazards Result
32:45
Dam Constructed and Conservation Efforts
33:35
Water Transport and Trends in Use
34:43
Price Continues to Go Up
34:47
CA Dichotomy
35:46
Trends in Water Use from 1950-2005
36:45
Water Conservation in Agriculture
38:53
Careful Use and Protection of Water
38:59
Suggestions for Conserving
39:30
Water Conservation for Homes/ Cities
43:31
Growing Populations in Numerous Cities are Heading for a Situation Where the Water Supply is Exhausted
43:41
Suggestions for Conserving
44:23
Water Sustainability
49:17
Careful Use and Protection of Water
49:18
Criteria for Sustainable Water Use
49:33
Example: Artificial Recharge
50:42
Virtual Water Footprint
51:51
Amount of Water Used to Produce a Product
52:00
Water Export/ Import Varies by Continent
53:50
Use of Water for Making Products is Important to Consider
55:26
Footprint: Total Volume Used to Product Services
56:25
Wetlands and Their Importance
58:29
Natural Sponge
59:05
Groundwater Recharge
59:26
Endangered Animals Rely on Them
59:45
Help Purify Water
1:00:07
Buffer for Storms/Waves
1:00:24
Lots of Carbon Storage
1:00:38
Aesthetically Pleasing
1:00:58
Dams and Their Effects
1:01:26
Environmental Effects of Dams
1:01:31
Three Gorges Dam, China
1:03:46
Marmot Dam Restoration, Oregon
1:04:57
Water Pollution & Treatment

46m 39s

Intro
0:00
Water Pollution Overview
0:05
Degradation of Water Quality
0:09
Sources of Pollution
0:37
Maximum Contaminant Levels
2:50
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
4:08
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
4:09
Dead Organic Matter Enters Streams From Natural Sources and Agriculture Runoff
4:50
Dissolved Oxygen Content of <5 mg/L is Threshold
5:31
Three Zones
6:03
Waterborne Illnesses
9:34
Not Immune to Outbreaks of Waterborne Disease
9:35
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
9:53
Water Unfit to Swim In
11:02
Nutrients in Water
11:49
Pollution from Human Sources
12:11
Eutrophication
12:28
Eutrophic vs. Oligotrophic Lake
13:41
Cultural Eutrophication
14:36
Oil and Sediment
17:10
Oil Has Caused Major Pollution Problems
17:11
Sediment Pollution is Also a Major Issue
18:19
Acid Mine Drainage
18:57
General Equation
19:13
Can Occur Near Abandoned Mines
20:35
Potential Solutions
21:26
Surface-Water Pollution
22:41
Point Sources
22:45
Urban-Runoff Naturalization
23:43
Groundwater Pollution
26:18
Groundwater to Drink
26:19
Example: Gasoline Pollution
26:52
Points to Consider
27:38
Different from Surface-Water Pollution
28:21
Wastewater Treatment
29:37
Sewage Treatment
29:38
Septic Tank Disposal Systems
29:58
Water Treatment Plant Receives Sewage from Pipes and After Treatment Discharges Water Into Ocean
33:01
Primary Water Treatment
33:22
Secondary Water Treatment
34:20
Advanced Treatment
35:32
Land Application of Wastewater
36:28
Recycling Wastewater is Becoming More Common
37:09
Man-Made Wetlands
36:35
Example: Arcata, ca
38:27
Water Reuse
39:15
Inadvertent Water Reuse
39:24
Indirect Water Reuse
40:29
Direct Water Reuse
40:41
Water Pollution and Environmental Law
41:26
Refuse Act
41:40
Water Quality Improvement Act
42:07
Federal Safe Drinking Water Act
42:28
Clean Water Act
42:51
Water Quality Act
42:58
The Hudson River Story
43:46
Flows in 2 Directions
43:56
History
44:33
Air Pollution

1h 27m 40s

Intro
0:00
Air Pollution Overview
0:05
People Have Recognized the Problem for a Long Time Now
0:42
Stationary Sources
1:58
Mobile Sources
3:22
General Effects of Air Pollutants
3:39
Affects Vegetation, Animals, Soils, Water Quality, Natural/ Art Structures, Human Health, and Visibility
3:46
Major Factor in the Death Rate in Large Cities
5:23
Effects on Humans
5:45
Synergistic Effects
6:47
Major Air Pollutants
7:24
Primary Pollutants
7:33
Secondary Pollutants
8:15
Primary Pollutants That Account for Most of the Problems
9:33
Criteria Pollutants
11:08
Sulfur Dioxide
11:24
Nitrogen Oxides
12:57
Carbon Monoxide
16:03
Ozone
16:52
Particulate Matter
17:10
Lead
22:16
Acid Rain
23:41
Precipitation Lower than 5.6pH
22:44
Determining the Effects of Acid Rain
26:49
Effects: Forests, Water, Humans
28:12
How to Control it
30:46
Air Toxics
33:02
H2S
33:12
HF
34:11
Hg
34:55
VOCs
36:48
C2H3NO
37:30
C6H6
38:44
CH2CHCHO
39:30
Air Pollution Variability
40:11
Varies from Place to Place
40:13
Varies with Time of Year
42:18
Haze from Afar
43:38
Urban Air Pollution
44:44
Photochemical Smog
44:49
Sulfurous Smog
45:23
Primary Adverse Effects
46:05
Controlling Pollutants and Quality Standards
50:43
Preventing Entrance into Atmosphere
50:45
Air Pollution Legislation
54:03
High Altitude Depletion
56:55
Ozone Depletion is a Major Concern
56:59
Ozone Shield
57:25
Ozone Depletion
1:00:02
Antarctic Ozone Hole
1:04:30
Pole Stratospheric Clouds
1:05:29
Environmental Effects
1:07:06
The Future of Ozone Depletion
1:09:31
Indoor Air Pollution Intro
1:10:15
70-90% Enclosed in Space
1:10:16
Coal Miners' Disease
1:11:16
One of the Biggest Hazards in Modern Workspace
1:11:50
Hurricane Katrina
1:11:58
Sources
1:13:35
Some Sources of Indoor Air Pollution
1:13:44
Heating, Ventilation
1:13:50
Furniture and Carpets
1:14:07
Machines, Computers, Printers
1:14:21
Pesticides
1:14:49
Indoor Smoking
1:15:13
Chemicals Used in Building Construction
1:15:28
Garbage Containers and Vehicle Exhaust
1:15:40
Cleaning Products
1:16:15
Dust Mites and Molds
1:16:28
Pollen
1:16:37
More on Indoor Pollution
1:16:48
Chimney Effect
1:16:58
Heating, Ventilation
1:17:56
Environmental Tobacco Smoke
1:18:46
Radon Gas
1:20:37
'Sick Buildings'
1:22:24
Controlling Indoor Air Pollution
1:25:04
Make Homes/ Buildings Radon Resistant
1:26:00
Building Design
1:26:33
Atmosphere & Climate Change

1h 16m 3s

Intro
0:00
Fundamental Questions on Global Warming
0:06
Weather vs. Climate
3:28
Weather
3:37
Climate
4:10
Weather is Affected by Many Factors
5:22
Climate is Always Changing
6:12
Atmospheric Composition
9:10
Factors That Influence Climate
11:12
Air Mass and Pressure
11:25
Albedo
11:55
Altitude and Latitude
12:51
Humidity and Clouds
13:58
Angle of Sunlight
14:31
Carbon Cycle
14:56
Heat
15:20
Landmasses/ Mountains
16:02
Volcanoes
16:14
Pollution
16:36
Wind Patterns
16:55
Greenhouse Gases
17:10
Gases That Warm the Earth's Surface as They Accumulate in the Atmosphere
17:11
Examples
19:04
The Greenhouse Effect
21:05
Heat Trapped in Earth by Greenhouse Gases
21:06
Majority of Heat Radiates Back Into Outer Space
21:18
How It Works
21:46
The Atmosphere
25:01
Thermosphere
25:49
Mesosphere
26:30
Stratosphere
26:53
Troposphere
27:52
How We Study Climate
31:13
Instrumental Record
31:17
Historical Record
32:59
Paleo-Proxy Record
34:03
Climate Change and Feedback Loops
40:57
Negative Feedback
41:08
Positive Feedback
45:20
Causes of Climate Change
48:07
Milankovitch Cycles
49:12
Solar Cycles
51:50
Albedo Effects
52:48
Roughness of the Earth
53:22
Chemistry of Life
53:48
Climate Forcing
54:13
Oceans and Climate Change
56:22
Ocean/ Atmosphere Relationship
56:23
Ocean Conveyor Belt
57:37
El Niño
58:16
La Niña
1:00:01
Forecasting Climate Change
1:00:06
Past Observations and Research
1:00:10
Computer Simulations
1:03:34
Polar Amplification
1:04:47
Potential Environmental, Ecological, Human Effects
1:05:51
Changes in River Flow
1:05:57
Rise in Sea Levels
1:06:26
Glaciers and Sea Ice
1:07:37
Changes in Biodiversity
1:08:37
Agricultural Production
1:09:53
Human Health Effects
1:10:47
Options to Deal With It
1:12:09
Kyoto Protocol
1:13:18
International Agreement to Mitigate Global Warming
1:13:23
Cut of Carbon Dioxide Emissions
1:13:48
2008: U.S. Agreed to 50% Reductions
1:14:16
2010: No International Agreement with U.S.
1:15:35
Section 6: Cities and the Future
The Urban Environment

51m 5s

Intro
0:00
City Facts
0:05
1950: Few people Lived in Cities
1:22
U.S. = 75% Urban, 25% Rural
2:07
2002: Megacities
2:41
Urban Ecosystems
3:19
Location, Location, Location
5:04
Site
5:29
Situation
5:42
Fall Line
7:44
Site Modification
9:11
Negative Consequences: New Orleans
9:22
Bruges, Belgium
11:06
Environmental History of Cities
12:19
Stage 1: Rise of Cities
12:27
Stage 2: Urban Center
13:33
Stage 3: Industrial Metropolis
15:22
Stage 4: Center of Civilization
17:29
Planning and the Environment
18:52
Defense and Beauty
19:15
City Parks are Designed with Nature
21:26
Garden City with Green Belt
23:33
The City as an Environment
24:14
Cities Inevitably Change the Landscape
24:17
Energy Budget
26:17
Climate Effects
28:00
Solar Energy
28:53
Water and Soils
30:13
Pollution
30:54
Bringing Nature to the City
31:52
New York City's High Line
31:59
Rivers
34:38
Vegetation in Cities
37:55
Urban 'Wilds'
38:59
Animal Pests
41:02
Urban Sprawl
45:02
1959: Blue Line
46:38
1967: Greenbelt
48:01
1976: 2% Increase in Residents Per Year
48:25
2002: Only Increased 2000
48:41
Materials Management

1h 14m 52s

Intro
0:00
The Importance of Resources
0:04
Renewable vs. Nonrenewables
0:11
Goal
1:22
Ways to Achieve Goal
1:28
Mineral Resources
5:06
Ore Deposits
5:40
Sedimentary Processes Result
6:17
Weathering
6:59
How Much is Left?
8:15
Resources
8:22
Reserves
8:44
Varied Use of Minerals Worldwide
10:36
When the Resources is Limited…
11:59
Mineral Development and Its Impact
13:42
Environmental Impacts
13:46
Social Impacts
15:22
Minimizing the Impact
17:15
Resource Cycle Flowchart
18:47
Materials Management and Waste
21:38
History or Waste Disposal
21:39
Industrial Ecology
25:51
Integrated Waste Management
28:06
IWM
28:07
Single Stream Recycling
29:33
Public Support
30:33
Recycling Human Waste
32:19
Solid-Waste Management
35:48
What It's Composed Of
35:51
Composting
39:23
Incineration
41:11
Open Dumps vs. Sanitary Landfills
41:43
Landfills: Site Selection and Monitoring
43:51
The Hazard of Leachate
44:10
Site Selection
45:10
Entrance into the Environment
46:33
Legislation and Waste Reduction in Landfills
49:03
Federal/ EPA Standards
49:07
Waste Reduction Strategies
50:51
Hazardous Waste
54:20
Illegal Dumping
54:40
Pollution of Groundwater and/or Soil
57:49
Hazardous Waste Disposal, Management
59:35
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
59:38
CERCLA
59:48
Environmental Audits
1:01:39
Secure Landfill
1:03:11
Alternatives to Land Disposal
1:03:58
We Can Improve Hazardous Waste Disposal
1:04:00
Source Reduction
1:05:00
Recycling, Resource Recovery
1:05:16
Incineration
1:05:30
Ocean Dumping
1:05:52
Oceans Cover More Than 70% of Earth
1:05:05
Some of Marine Pollution's Harmful Effects
1:06:40
Microlayer Dangers
1:08:43
'Plastic Island' in the Pacific
1:10:09
E-Waste
1:10:56
Danger of Electronic Waste
1:10:59
Treasure of the Cell Phone
1:11:54
Some Areas Factor Recycling/ Disposal Into Costs
1:12:45
We Can Do Better!
1:14:10
The Future of the Environment

29m 9s

Intro
0:00
Ecotopia!
0:05
Stable or Declining Human Population
0:23
All Resources are Sustainable
0:51
Enough Wilderness for People to Enjoy Recreation
1:05
Minimized Pollution
1:24
Risk of Extinction Minimized for Many Species
1:37
Healthy, Functioning Ecosystems
2:14
Enough Water and Food for All Life
2:29
Planning a Future
2:48
Self-Organizing Systems
2:51
Example: Town Formation vs. Deepwater Horizon
3:43
Democracy
5:19
Planning is a Social Experiment We All Participate In
6:02
Environment and the Law
7:23
'A Horse, a Gun, and a Plan'
7:27
Three Stages
8:45
How Far Can Governments Go with Enacting Environmental Legislation?
12:29
Planning for Services and Recreation
12:51
Regional Planning
12:55
Planning Goes Into Providing Recreational National Park Space
14:25
Policy Implementation Examples
15:32
Skiing at Mineral King
16:28
Rewilding
18:45
Participation in Environmental Law
20:13
Environmental Groups Have Been a Powerful Force
20:17
Citizens Actions
20:27
Mediation
21:41
International Law and Security
22:57
More Than One Billion People on Earth Live in Poverty
22:58
United Nation's Annual Budget for Environment
26:31
Earth Summit of Sustainable Development
27:14
Johannesburg, South Africa
27:15
Objectives
27:21
Section 7: Lichens
Lichens: A Closer Look

40m 6s

Intro
0:00
Lichen Intro
0:05
Composite Organism from a Symbiotic Relationship
0:49
Thousands of Species
1:58
Can Live Anywhere
2:43
Found from Sea Level to Alpine Environments
3:10
Not Moss
3:24
Related to Environmental Science in Many Ways
3:54
Various Forms of Lichen
5:48
Categorized Based on Growth
5:50
Wide Variety of Colors
7:07
Range of Forms
7:38
Symbiosis: Not a Traditional Mutualism
8:08
'Lichens are Fungi That Have Discovered Agriculture'
8:14
Mutualism
8:53
Some Lichens Live on Other Lichens
12:01
Reproduction of Lichens
12:24
Reproduction is Generally Asexual
12:27
Fungal Part Can Reproduce Sexually
12:54
Spore-Containing Bodies Grow from the Thallus
13:25
Energy Use of Lichens
13:57
Photobiont
14:05
Water
14:34
Temperature
15:45
Minerals
16:41
What Eats Lichens?
17:07
Lichens in North American Biomes
18:04
Arctic/ Alpine Region
18:20
Boreal Region
19:36
Temperate Region
20:24
Madrean
21:31
Tropical
22:50
Desert
23:45
Response to the Environment
24:30
Lichens are Efficient Accumulators of Minerals
24:31
Absorbed from the Atmosphere and Soil
25:30
Pollution Monitors
26:28
Transplants Programs
28:27
Ability to Absorb Metals Can Potentially Indicate Where Ore is Located
30:02
Some Lichens are Restricted to Old Growth Forests, With Undisturbed Growth
30:48
Human Use of Lichens
32:12
Exceptions
32:33
Clothing
35:12
Dyes
35:40
Perfumes
35:55
Medicines
36:47
Section 8: Practice AP Test
AP Practice Exam: Math Problems

37m 14s

Intro
0:00
Testing Basics
0:07
Advice on Preparation
4:12
Math Problem 1
7:46
Math Problem 2
11:37
Math Problem 3
13:11
Math Problem 4
16:07
Math Problem 5
20:41
Math Problem 6
22:30
Math Problem 7
23:14
Math Problem 8
24:28
Math Problem 9
25:29
Math Problem 10
27:30
Math Problem 11
29:26
Math Problem 12
31:15
Math Problem 13
32:36
Math Problem 14
34:44
AP Practice Exam: Multiple Choice

41m 50s

Intro
0:00
Explanation
0:06
Breakdown of Concepts
1:57
Question 1
2:19
Question 2
2:47
Question 3
3:36
Question 4
4:35
Question 5
5:32
Question 6
5:48
Question 7
6:39
Question 8
7:19
Question 9
7:59
Question 10
9:10
Question 11
9:37
Question 12
10:29
Question 13
11:21
Question 14
12:03
Question 15
12:42
Question 16
13:44
Question 17
14:20
Question 18
15:14
Question 19
16:23
Question 20
17:13
Question 21
18:24
Question 22
19:28
Question 23
20:12
Question 24
20:51
Question 25
21:54
Question 26
22:32
Question 27
23:44
Question 28
24:20
Question 29
25:08
Question 30
26:03
Question 31
26:35
Question 32
27:24
Question 33
28:11
Question 34
29:14
Question 35
29:53
Question 36
30:42
Question 37
31:22
Question 38
31:57
Question 39
32:32
Question 40
33:44
Question 41
34:27
Question 42
35:01
Question 43
35:28
Question 44
36:11
Question 45
36:51
Question 46
37:29
Question 47
37:55
Question 48
39:16
Question 49
40:11
Question 50
40:58
AP Practice Exam: Free Response

1h 1m 26s

Intro
0:00
Free Response Summary
0:05
Advice on Preparation
3:55
Free Response Question 1
7:11
Free Response Question 2
25:12
Free Response Question 3
37:46
Free Response Question 4
50:28
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For more information, please see full course syllabus of AP Environmental Science
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