Raffi Hovasapian

Raffi Hovasapian

Enthalpy & Hess's Law

Slide Duration:

Table of Contents

Section 1: Review
Naming Compounds

41m 24s

Intro
0:00
Periodic Table of Elements
0:15
Naming Compounds
3:13
Definition and Examples of Ions
3:14
Ionic (Symbol to Name): NaCl
5:23
Ionic (Name to Symbol): Calcium Oxide
7:58
Ionic - Polyatoms Anions: Examples
12:45
Ionic - Polyatoms Anions (Symbol to Name): KClO
14:50
Ionic - Polyatoms Anions (Name to Symbol): Potassium Phosphate
15:49
Ionic Compounds Involving Transition Metals (Symbol to Name): Co₂(CO₃)₃
20:48
Ionic Compounds Involving Transition Metals (Name to Symbol): Palladium 2 Acetate
22:44
Naming Covalent Compounds (Symbol to Name): CO
26:21
Naming Covalent Compounds (Name to Symbol): Nitrogen Trifluoride
27:34
Naming Covalent Compounds (Name to Symbol): Dichlorine Monoxide
27:57
Naming Acids Introduction
28:11
Naming Acids (Name to Symbol): Chlorous Acid
35:08
% Composition by Mass Example
37:38
Stoichiometry

37m 19s

Intro
0:00
Stoichiometry
0:25
Introduction to Stoichiometry
0:26
Example 1
5:03
Example 2
10:17
Example 3
15:09
Example 4
24:02
Example 5: Questions
28:11
Example 5: Part A - Limiting Reactant
30:30
Example 5: Part B
32:27
Example 5: Part C
35:00
Section 2: Aqueous Reactions & Stoichiometry
Precipitation Reactions

31m 14s

Intro
0:00
Precipitation Reactions
0:53
Dissociation of ionic Compounds
0:54
Solubility Guidelines for ionic Compounds: Soluble Ionic Compounds
8:15
Solubility Guidelines for ionic Compounds: Insoluble ionic Compounds
12:56
Precipitation Reactions
14:08
Example 1: Mixing a Solution of BaCl₂ & K₂SO₄
21:21
Example 2: Mixing a Solution of Mg(NO₃)₂ & KI
26:10
Acid-Base Reactions

43m 21s

Intro
0:00
Acid-Base Reactions
1:00
Introduction to Acid: Monoprotic Acid and Polyprotic Acid
1:01
Introduction to Base
8:28
Neutralization
11:45
Example 1
16:17
Example 2
21:55
Molarity
24:50
Example 3
26:50
Example 4
30:01
Example 4: Limiting Reactant
37:51
Example 4: Reaction Part
40:01
Oxidation Reduction Reactions

47m 58s

Intro
0:00
Oxidation Reduction Reactions
0:26
Oxidation and Reduction Overview
0:27
How Can One Tell Whether Oxidation-Reduction has Taken Place?
7:13
Rules for Assigning Oxidation State: Number 1
11:22
Rules for Assigning Oxidation State: Number 2
12:46
Rules for Assigning Oxidation State: Number 3
13:25
Rules for Assigning Oxidation State: Number 4
14:50
Rules for Assigning Oxidation State: Number 5
15:41
Rules for Assigning Oxidation State: Number 6
17:00
Example 1: Determine the Oxidation State of Sulfur in the Following Compounds
18:20
Activity Series and Reduction Properties
25:32
Activity Series and Reduction Properties
25:33
Example 2: Write the Balance Molecular, Total Ionic, and Net Ionic Equations for Al + HCl
31:37
Example 3
34:25
Example 4
37:55
Stoichiometry Examples

31m 50s

Intro
0:00
Stoichiometry Example 1
0:36
Example 1: Question and Answer
0:37
Stoichiometry Example 2
6:57
Example 2: Questions
6:58
Example 2: Part A Solution
12:16
Example 2: Part B Solution
13:05
Example 2: Part C Solution
14:00
Example 2: Part D Solution
14:38
Stoichiometry Example 3
17:56
Example 3: Questions
17:57
Example 3: Part A Solution
19:51
Example 3: Part B Solution
21:43
Example 3: Part C Solution
26:46
Section 3: Gases
Pressure, Gas Laws, & The Ideal Gas Equation

49m 40s

Intro
0:00
Pressure
0:22
Pressure Overview
0:23
Torricelli: Barometer
4:35
Measuring Gas Pressure in a Container
7:49
Boyle's Law
12:40
Example 1
16:56
Gas Laws
21:18
Gas Laws
21:19
Avogadro's Law
26:16
Example 2
31:47
Ideal Gas Equation
38:20
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
38:21
Example 3
40:43
Partial Pressure, Mol Fraction, & Vapor Pressure

32m

Intro
0:00
Gases
0:27
Gases
0:28
Mole Fractions
5:52
Vapor Pressure
8:22
Example 1
13:25
Example 2
22:45
Kinetic Molecular Theory and Real Gases

31m 58s

Intro
0:00
Kinetic Molecular Theory and Real Gases
0:45
Kinetic Molecular Theory 1
0:46
Kinetic Molecular Theory 2
4:23
Kinetic Molecular Theory 3
5:42
Kinetic Molecular Theory 4
6:27
Equations
7:52
Effusion
11:15
Diffusion
13:30
Example 1
19:54
Example 2
23:23
Example 3
26:45
AP Practice for Gases

25m 34s

Intro
0:00
Example 1
0:34
Example 1
0:35
Example 2
6:15
Example 2: Part A
6:16
Example 2: Part B
8:46
Example 2: Part C
10:30
Example 2: Part D
11:15
Example 2: Part E
12:20
Example 2: Part F
13:22
Example 3
14:45
Example 3
14:46
Example 4
18:16
Example 4
18:17
Example 5
21:04
Example 5
21:05
Section 4: Thermochemistry
Energy, Heat, and Work

37m 32s

Intro
0:00
Thermochemistry
0:25
Temperature and Heat
0:26
Work
3:07
System, Surroundings, Exothermic Process, and Endothermic Process
8:19
Work & Gas: Expansion and Compression
16:30
Example 1
24:41
Example 2
27:47
Example 3
31:58
Enthalpy & Hess's Law

32m 34s

Intro
0:00
Thermochemistry
1:43
Defining Enthalpy & Hess's Law
1:44
Example 1
6:48
State Function
13:11
Example 2
17:15
Example 3
24:09
Standard Enthalpies of Formation

23m 9s

Intro
0:00
Thermochemistry
1:04
Standard Enthalpy of Formation: Definition & Equation
1:05
∆H of Formation
10:00
Example 1
11:22
Example 2
19:00
Calorimetry

39m 28s

Intro
0:00
Thermochemistry
0:21
Heat Capacity
0:22
Molar Heat Capacity
4:44
Constant Pressure Calorimetry
5:50
Example 1
12:24
Constant Volume Calorimetry
21:54
Example 2
24:40
Example 3
31:03
Section 5: Kinetics
Reaction Rates and Rate Laws

36m 24s

Intro
0:00
Kinetics
2:18
Rate: 2 NO₂ (g) → 2NO (g) + O₂ (g)
2:19
Reaction Rates Graph
7:25
Time Interval & Average Rate
13:13
Instantaneous Rate
15:13
Rate of Reaction is Proportional to Some Power of the Reactant Concentrations
23:49
Example 1
27:19
Method of Initial Rates

30m 48s

Intro
0:00
Kinetics
0:33
Rate
0:34
Idea
2:24
Example 1: NH₄⁺ + NO₂⁻ → NO₂ (g) + 2 H₂O
5:36
Example 2: BrO₃⁻ + 5 Br⁻ + 6 H⁺ → 3 Br₂ + 3 H₂O
19:29
Integrated Rate Law & Reaction Half-Life

32m 17s

Intro
0:00
Kinetics
0:52
Integrated Rate Law
0:53
Example 1
6:26
Example 2
15:19
Half-life of a Reaction
20:40
Example 3: Part A
25:41
Example 3: Part B
28:01
Second Order & Zero-Order Rate Laws

26m 40s

Intro
0:00
Kinetics
0:22
Second Order
0:23
Example 1
6:08
Zero-Order
16:36
Summary for the Kinetics Associated with the Reaction
21:27
Activation Energy & Arrhenius Equation

40m 59s

Intro
0:00
Kinetics
0:53
Rate Constant
0:54
Collision Model
2:45
Activation Energy
5:11
Arrhenius Proposed
9:54
2 Requirements for a Successful Reaction
15:39
Rate Constant
17:53
Arrhenius Equation
19:51
Example 1
25:00
Activation Energy & the Values of K
32:12
Example 2
36:46
AP Practice for Kinetics

29m 8s

Intro
0:00
Kinetics
0:43
Example 1
0:44
Example 2
6:53
Example 3
8:58
Example 4
11:36
Example 5
16:36
Example 6: Part A
21:00
Example 6: Part B
25:09
Section 6: Equilibrium
Equilibrium, Part 1

46m

Intro
0:00
Equilibrium
1:32
Introduction to Equilibrium
1:33
Equilibrium Rules
14:00
Example 1: Part A
16:46
Example 1: Part B
18:48
Example 1: Part C
22:13
Example 1: Part D
24:55
Example 2: Part A
27:46
Example 2: Part B
31:22
Example 2: Part C
33:00
Reverse a Reaction
36:04
Example 3
37:24
Equilibrium, Part 2

40m 53s

Intro
0:00
Equilibrium
1:31
Equilibriums Involving Gases
1:32
General Equation
10:11
Example 1: Question
11:55
Example 1: Answer
13:43
Example 2: Question
19:08
Example 2: Answer
21:37
Example 3: Question
33:40
Example 3: Answer
35:24
Equilibrium: Reaction Quotient

45m 53s

Intro
0:00
Equilibrium
0:57
Reaction Quotient
0:58
If Q > K
5:37
If Q < K
6:52
If Q = K
7:45
Example 1: Part A
8:24
Example 1: Part B
13:11
Example 2: Question
20:04
Example 2: Answer
22:15
Example 3: Question
30:54
Example 3: Answer
32:52
Steps in Solving Equilibrium Problems
42:40
Equilibrium: Examples

31m 51s

Intro
0:00
Equilibrium
1:09
Example 1: Question
1:10
Example 1: Answer
4:15
Example 2: Question
13:04
Example 2: Answer
15:20
Example 3: Question
25:03
Example 3: Answer
26:32
Le Chatelier's principle & Equilibrium

40m 52s

Intro
0:00
Le Chatelier
1:05
Le Chatelier Principle
1:06
Concentration: Add 'x'
5:25
Concentration: Subtract 'x'
7:50
Example 1
9:44
Change in Pressure
12:53
Example 2
20:40
Temperature: Exothermic and Endothermic
24:33
Example 3
29:55
Example 4
35:30
Section 7: Acids & Bases
Acids and Bases

50m 11s

Intro
0:00
Acids and Bases
1:14
Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base Model
1:28
Reaction of an Acid with Water
4:36
Acid Dissociation
10:51
Acid Strength
13:48
Example 1
21:22
Water as an Acid & a Base
25:25
Example 2: Part A
32:30
Example 2: Part B
34:47
Example 3: Part A
35:58
Example 3: Part B
39:33
pH Scale
41:12
Example 4
43:56
pH of Weak Acid Solutions

43m 52s

Intro
0:00
pH of Weak Acid Solutions
1:12
pH of Weak Acid Solutions
1:13
Example 1
6:26
Example 2
14:25
Example 3
24:23
Example 4
30:38
Percent Dissociation: Strong & Weak Bases

43m 4s

Intro
0:00
Bases
0:33
Percent Dissociation: Strong & Weak Bases
0:45
Example 1
6:23
Strong Base Dissociation
11:24
Example 2
13:02
Weak Acid and General Reaction
17:38
Example: NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻
20:30
Strong Base and Weak Base
23:49
Example 4
24:54
Example 5
33:51
Polyprotic Acids

35m 34s

Intro
0:00
Polyprotic Acids
1:04
Acids Dissociation
1:05
Example 1
4:51
Example 2
17:30
Example 3
31:11
Salts and Their Acid-Base Properties

41m 14s

Intro
0:00
Salts and Their Acid-Base Properties
0:11
Salts and Their Acid-Base Properties
0:15
Example 1
7:58
Example 2
14:00
Metal Ion and Acidic Solution
22:00
Example 3
28:35
NH₄F → NH₄⁺ + F⁻
34:05
Example 4
38:03
Common Ion Effect & Buffers

41m 58s

Intro
0:00
Common Ion Effect & Buffers
1:16
Covalent Oxides Produce Acidic Solutions in Water
1:36
Ionic Oxides Produce Basic Solutions in Water
4:15
Practice Example 1
6:10
Practice Example 2
9:00
Definition
12:27
Example 1: Part A
16:49
Example 1: Part B
19:54
Buffer Solution
25:10
Example of Some Buffers: HF and NaF
30:02
Example of Some Buffers: Acetic Acid & Potassium Acetate
31:34
Example of Some Buffers: CH₃NH₂ & CH₃NH₃Cl
33:54
Example 2: Buffer Solution
36:36
Buffer

32m 24s

Intro
0:00
Buffers
1:20
Buffer Solution
1:21
Adding Base
5:03
Adding Acid
7:14
Example 1: Question
9:48
Example 1: Recall
12:08
Example 1: Major Species Upon Addition of NaOH
16:10
Example 1: Equilibrium, ICE Chart, and Final Calculation
24:33
Example 1: Comparison
29:19
Buffers, Part II

40m 6s

Intro
0:00
Buffers
1:27
Example 1: Question
1:32
Example 1: ICE Chart
3:15
Example 1: Major Species Upon Addition of OH⁻, But Before Rxn
7:23
Example 1: Equilibrium, ICE Chart, and Final Calculation
12:51
Summary
17:21
Another Look at Buffering & the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
19:00
Example 2
27:08
Example 3
32:01
Buffers, Part III

38m 43s

Intro
0:00
Buffers
0:25
Buffer Capacity Part 1
0:26
Example 1
4:10
Buffer Capacity Part 2
19:29
Example 2
25:12
Example 3
32:02
Titrations: Strong Acid and Strong Base

42m 42s

Intro
0:00
Titrations: Strong Acid and Strong Base
1:11
Definition of Titration
1:12
Sample Problem
3:33
Definition of Titration Curve or pH Curve
9:46
Scenario 1: Strong Acid- Strong Base Titration
11:00
Question
11:01
Part 1: No NaOH is Added
14:00
Part 2: 10.0 mL of NaOH is Added
15:50
Part 3: Another 10.0 mL of NaOH & 20.0 mL of NaOH are Added
22:19
Part 4: 50.0 mL of NaOH is Added
26:46
Part 5: 100.0 mL (Total) of NaOH is Added
27:26
Part 6: 150.0 mL (Total) of NaOH is Added
32:06
Part 7: 200.0 mL of NaOH is Added
35:07
Titrations Curve for Strong Acid and Strong Base
35:43
Titrations: Weak Acid and Strong Base

42m 3s

Intro
0:00
Titrations: Weak Acid and Strong Base
0:43
Question
0:44
Part 1: No NaOH is Added
1:54
Part 2: 10.0 mL of NaOH is Added
5:17
Part 3: 25.0 mL of NaOH is Added
14:01
Part 4: 40.0 mL of NaOH is Added
21:55
Part 5: 50.0 mL (Total) of NaOH is Added
22:25
Part 6: 60.0 mL (Total) of NaOH is Added
31:36
Part 7: 75.0 mL (Total) of NaOH is Added
35:44
Titration Curve
36:09
Titration Examples & Acid-Base Indicators

52m 3s

Intro
0:00
Examples and Indicators
0:25
Example 1: Question
0:26
Example 1: Solution
2:03
Example 2: Question
12:33
Example 2: Solution
14:52
Example 3: Question
23:45
Example 3: Solution
25:09
Acid/Base Indicator Overview
34:45
Acid/Base Indicator Example
37:40
Acid/Base Indicator General Result
47:11
Choosing Acid/Base Indicator
49:12
Section 8: Solubility
Solubility Equilibria

36m 25s

Intro
0:00
Solubility Equilibria
0:48
Solubility Equilibria Overview
0:49
Solubility Product Constant
4:24
Definition of Solubility
9:10
Definition of Solubility Product
11:28
Example 1
14:09
Example 2
20:19
Example 3
27:30
Relative Solubilities
31:04
Solubility Equilibria, Part II

42m 6s

Intro
0:00
Solubility Equilibria
0:46
Common Ion Effect
0:47
Example 1
3:14
pH & Solubility
13:00
Example of pH & Solubility
15:25
Example 2
23:06
Precipitation & Definition of the Ion Product
26:48
If Q > Ksp
29:31
If Q < Ksp
30:27
Example 3
32:58
Solubility Equilibria, Part III

43m 9s

Intro
0:00
Solubility Equilibria
0:55
Example 1: Question
0:56
Example 1: Step 1 - Check to See if Anything Precipitates
2:52
Example 1: Step 2 - Stoichiometry
10:47
Example 1: Step 3 - Equilibrium
16:34
Example 2: Selective Precipitation (Question)
21:02
Example 2: Solution
23:41
Classical Qualitative Analysis
29:44
Groups: 1-5
38:44
Section 9: Complex Ions
Complex Ion Equilibria

43m 38s

Intro
0:00
Complex Ion Equilibria
0:32
Complex Ion
0:34
Ligan Examples
1:51
Ligand Definition
3:12
Coordination
6:28
Example 1
8:08
Example 2
19:13
Complex Ions & Solubility

31m 30s

Intro
0:00
Complex Ions and Solubility
0:23
Recall: Classical Qualitative Analysis
0:24
Example 1
6:10
Example 2
16:16
Dissolving a Water-Insoluble Ionic Compound: Method 1
23:38
Dissolving a Water-Insoluble Ionic Compound: Method 2
28:13
Section 10: Chemical Thermodynamics
Spontaneity, Entropy, & Free Energy, Part I

56m 28s

Intro
0:00
Spontaneity, Entropy, Free Energy
2:25
Energy Overview
2:26
Equation: ∆E = q + w
4:30
State Function/ State Property
8:35
Equation: w = -P∆V
12:00
Enthalpy: H = E + PV
14:50
Enthalpy is a State Property
17:33
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
19:20
First Law of Thermodynamic
22:28
Entropy
25:48
Spontaneous Process
33:53
Second Law of Thermodynamic
36:51
More on Entropy
42:23
Example
43:55
Spontaneity, Entropy, & Free Energy, Part II

39m 55s

Intro
0:00
Spontaneity, Entropy, Free Energy
1:30
∆S of Universe = ∆S of System + ∆S of Surrounding
1:31
Convention
3:32
Examining a System
5:36
Thermodynamic Property: Sign of ∆S
16:52
Thermodynamic Property: Magnitude of ∆S
18:45
Deriving Equation: ∆S of Surrounding = -∆H / T
20:25
Example 1
25:51
Free Energy Equations
29:22
Spontaneity, Entropy, & Free Energy, Part III

30m 10s

Intro
0:00
Spontaneity, Entropy, Free Energy
0:11
Example 1
2:38
Key Concept of Example 1
14:06
Example 2
15:56
Units for ∆H, ∆G, and S
20:56
∆S of Surrounding & ∆S of System
22:00
Reaction Example
24:17
Example 3
26:52
Spontaneity, Entropy, & Free Energy, Part IV

30m 7s

Intro
0:00
Spontaneity, Entropy, Free Energy
0:29
Standard Free Energy of Formation
0:58
Example 1
4:34
Reaction Under Non-standard Conditions
13:23
Example 2
16:26
∆G = Negative
22:12
∆G = 0
24:38
Diagram Example of ∆G
26:43
Spontaneity, Entropy, & Free Energy, Part V

44m 56s

Intro
0:00
Spontaneity, Entropy, Free Energy
0:56
Equations: ∆G of Reaction, ∆G°, and K
0:57
Example 1: Question
6:50
Example 1: Part A
9:49
Example 1: Part B
15:28
Example 2
17:33
Example 3
23:31
lnK = (- ∆H° ÷ R) ( 1 ÷ T) + ( ∆S° ÷ R)
31:36
Maximum Work
35:57
Section 11: Electrochemistry
Oxidation-Reduction & Balancing

39m 23s

Intro
0:00
Oxidation-Reduction and Balancing
2:06
Definition of Electrochemistry
2:07
Oxidation and Reduction Review
3:05
Example 1: Assigning Oxidation State
10:15
Example 2: Is the Following a Redox Reaction?
18:06
Example 3: Step 1 - Write the Oxidation & Reduction Half Reactions
22:46
Example 3: Step 2 - Balance the Reaction
26:44
Example 3: Step 3 - Multiply
30:11
Example 3: Step 4 - Add
32:07
Example 3: Step 5 - Check
33:29
Galvanic Cells

43m 9s

Intro
0:00
Galvanic Cells
0:39
Example 1: Balance the Following Under Basic Conditions
0:40
Example 1: Steps to Balance Reaction Under Basic Conditions
3:25
Example 1: Solution
5:23
Example 2: Balance the Following Reaction
13:56
Galvanic Cells
18:15
Example 3: Galvanic Cells
28:19
Example 4: Galvanic Cells
35:12
Cell Potential

48m 41s

Intro
0:00
Cell Potential
2:08
Definition of Cell Potential
2:17
Symbol and Unit
5:50
Standard Reduction Potential
10:16
Example Figure 1
13:08
Example Figure 2
19:00
All Reduction Potentials are Written as Reduction
23:10
Cell Potential: Important Fact 1
26:49
Cell Potential: Important Fact 2
27:32
Cell Potential: Important Fact 3
28:54
Cell Potential: Important Fact 4
30:05
Example Problem 1
32:29
Example Problem 2
38:38
Potential, Work, & Free Energy

41m 23s

Intro
0:00
Potential, Work, Free Energy
0:42
Descriptions of Galvanic Cell
0:43
Line Notation
5:33
Example 1
6:26
Example 2
11:15
Example 3
15:18
Equation: Volt
22:20
Equations: Cell Potential, Work, and Charge
28:30
Maximum Cell Potential is Related to the Free Energy of the Cell Reaction
35:09
Example 4
37:42
Cell Potential & Concentration

34m 19s

Intro
0:00
Cell Potential & Concentration
0:29
Example 1: Question
0:30
Example 1: Nernst Equation
4:43
Example 1: Solution
7:01
Cell Potential & Concentration
11:27
Example 2
16:38
Manipulating the Nernst Equation
25:15
Example 3
28:43
Electrolysis

33m 21s

Intro
0:00
Electrolysis
3:16
Electrolysis: Part 1
3:17
Electrolysis: Part 2
5:25
Galvanic Cell Example
7:13
Nickel Cadmium Battery
12:18
Ampere
16:00
Example 1
20:47
Example 2
25:47
Section 12: Light
Light

44m 45s

Intro
0:00
Light
2:14
Introduction to Light
2:15
Frequency, Speed, and Wavelength of Waves
3:58
Units and Equations
7:37
Electromagnetic Spectrum
12:13
Example 1: Calculate the Frequency
17:41
E = hν
21:30
Example 2: Increment of Energy
25:12
Photon Energy of Light
28:56
Wave and Particle
31:46
Example 3: Wavelength of an Electron
34:46
Section 13: Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics & Electron Orbitals

54m

Intro
0:00
Quantum Mechanics & Electron Orbitals
0:51
Quantum Mechanics & Electron Orbitals Overview
0:52
Electron Orbital and Energy Levels for the Hydrogen Atom
8:47
Example 1
13:41
Quantum Mechanics: Schrodinger Equation
19:19
Quantum Numbers Overview
31:10
Principal Quantum Numbers
33:28
Angular Momentum Numbers
34:55
Magnetic Quantum Numbers
36:35
Spin Quantum Numbers
37:46
Primary Level, Sublevels, and Sub-Sub-Levels
39:42
Example
42:17
Orbital & Quantum Numbers
49:32
Electron Configurations & Diagrams

34m 4s

Intro
0:00
Electron Configurations & Diagrams
1:08
Electronic Structure of Ground State Atom
1:09
Order of Electron Filling
3:50
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: H
8:41
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: He
9:12
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: Li
9:47
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: Be
11:17
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: B
12:05
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: C
13:03
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: N
14:55
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: O
15:24
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: F
16:25
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: Ne
17:00
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: S
18:08
Electron Configurations & Diagrams: Fe
20:08
Introduction to Valence Electrons
23:04
Valence Electrons of Oxygen
23:44
Valence Electrons of Iron
24:02
Valence Electrons of Arsenic
24:30
Valence Electrons: Exceptions
25:36
The Periodic Table
27:52
Section 14: Intermolecular Forces
Vapor Pressure & Changes of State

52m 43s

Intro
0:00
Vapor Pressure and Changes of State
2:26
Intermolecular Forces Overview
2:27
Hydrogen Bonding
5:23
Heat of Vaporization
9:58
Vapor Pressure: Definition and Example
11:04
Vapor Pressures is Mostly a Function of Intermolecular Forces
17:41
Vapor Pressure Increases with Temperature
20:52
Vapor Pressure vs. Temperature: Graph and Equation
22:55
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
31:55
Example 1
32:13
Heating Curve
35:40
Heat of Fusion
41:31
Example 2
43:45
Phase Diagrams & Solutions

31m 17s

Intro
0:00
Phase Diagrams and Solutions
0:22
Definition of a Phase Diagram
0:50
Phase Diagram Part 1: H₂O
1:54
Phase Diagram Part 2: CO₂
9:59
Solutions: Solute & Solvent
16:12
Ways of Discussing Solution Composition: Mass Percent or Weight Percent
18:46
Ways of Discussing Solution Composition: Molarity
20:07
Ways of Discussing Solution Composition: Mole Fraction
20:48
Ways of Discussing Solution Composition: Molality
21:41
Example 1: Question
22:06
Example 1: Mass Percent
24:32
Example 1: Molarity
25:53
Example 1: Mole Fraction
28:09
Example 1: Molality
29:36
Vapor Pressure of Solutions

37m 23s

Intro
0:00
Vapor Pressure of Solutions
2:07
Vapor Pressure & Raoult's Law
2:08
Example 1
5:21
When Ionic Compounds Dissolve
10:51
Example 2
12:38
Non-Ideal Solutions
17:42
Negative Deviation
24:23
Positive Deviation
29:19
Example 3
31:40
Colligatives Properties

34m 11s

Intro
0:00
Colligative Properties
1:07
Boiling Point Elevation
1:08
Example 1: Question
5:19
Example 1: Solution
6:52
Freezing Point Depression
12:01
Example 2: Question
14:46
Example 2: Solution
16:34
Osmotic Pressure
20:20
Example 3: Question
28:00
Example 3: Solution
30:16
Section 15: Bonding
Bonding & Lewis Structure

48m 39s

Intro
0:00
Bonding & Lewis Structure
2:23
Covalent Bond
2:24
Single Bond, Double Bond, and Triple Bond
4:11
Bond Length & Intermolecular Distance
5:51
Definition of Electronegativity
8:42
Bond Polarity
11:48
Bond Energy
20:04
Example 1
24:31
Definition of Lewis Structure
31:54
Steps in Forming a Lewis Structure
33:26
Lewis Structure Example: H₂
36:53
Lewis Structure Example: CH₄
37:33
Lewis Structure Example: NO⁺
38:43
Lewis Structure Example: PCl₅
41:12
Lewis Structure Example: ICl₄⁻
43:05
Lewis Structure Example: BeCl₂
45:07
Resonance & Formal Charge

36m 59s

Intro
0:00
Resonance and Formal Charge
0:09
Resonance Structures of NO₃⁻
0:25
Resonance Structures of NO₂⁻
12:28
Resonance Structures of HCO₂⁻
16:28
Formal Charge
19:40
Formal Charge Example: SO₄²⁻
21:32
Formal Charge Example: CO₂
31:33
Formal Charge Example: HCN
32:44
Formal Charge Example: CN⁻
33:34
Formal Charge Example: 0₃
34:43
Shapes of Molecules

41m 21s

Intro
0:00
Shapes of Molecules
0:35
VSEPR
0:36
Steps in Determining Shapes of Molecules
6:18
Linear
11:38
Trigonal Planar
11:55
Tetrahedral
12:45
Trigonal Bipyramidal
13:23
Octahedral
14:29
Table: Shapes of Molecules
15:40
Example: CO₂
21:11
Example: NO₃⁻
24:01
Example: H₂O
27:00
Example: NH₃
29:48
Example: PCl₃⁻
32:18
Example: IF₄⁺
34:38
Example: KrF₄
37:57
Hybrid Orbitals

40m 17s

Intro
0:00
Hybrid Orbitals
0:13
Introduction to Hybrid Orbitals
0:14
Electron Orbitals for CH₄
5:02
sp³ Hybridization
10:52
Example: sp³ Hybridization
12:06
sp² Hybridization
14:21
Example: sp² Hybridization
16:11
σ Bond
19:10
π Bond
20:07
sp Hybridization & Example
22:00
dsp³ Hybridization & Example
27:36
d²sp³ Hybridization & Example
30:36
Example: Predict the Hybridization and Describe the Molecular Geometry of CO
32:31
Example: Predict the Hybridization and Describe the Molecular Geometry of BF₄⁻
35:17
Example: Predict the Hybridization and Describe the Molecular Geometry of XeF₂
37:09
Section 16: AP Practice Exam
AP Practice Exam: Multiple Choice, Part I

52m 34s

Intro
0:00
Multiple Choice
1:21
Multiple Choice 1
1:22
Multiple Choice 2
2:23
Multiple Choice 3
3:38
Multiple Choice 4
4:34
Multiple Choice 5
5:16
Multiple Choice 6
5:41
Multiple Choice 7
6:20
Multiple Choice 8
7:03
Multiple Choice 9
7:31
Multiple Choice 10
9:03
Multiple Choice 11
11:52
Multiple Choice 12
13:16
Multiple Choice 13
13:56
Multiple Choice 14
14:52
Multiple Choice 15
15:43
Multiple Choice 16
16:20
Multiple Choice 17
16:55
Multiple Choice 18
17:22
Multiple Choice 19
18:59
Multiple Choice 20
20:24
Multiple Choice 21
22:20
Multiple Choice 22
23:29
Multiple Choice 23
24:30
Multiple Choice 24
25:24
Multiple Choice 25
26:21
Multiple Choice 26
29:06
Multiple Choice 27
30:42
Multiple Choice 28
33:28
Multiple Choice 29
34:38
Multiple Choice 30
35:37
Multiple Choice 31
37:31
Multiple Choice 32
38:28
Multiple Choice 33
39:50
Multiple Choice 34
42:57
Multiple Choice 35
44:18
Multiple Choice 36
45:52
Multiple Choice 37
48:02
Multiple Choice 38
49:25
Multiple Choice 39
49:43
Multiple Choice 40
50:16
Multiple Choice 41
50:49
AP Practice Exam: Multiple Choice, Part II

32m 15s

Intro
0:00
Multiple Choice
0:12
Multiple Choice 42
0:13
Multiple Choice 43
0:33
Multiple Choice 44
1:16
Multiple Choice 45
2:36
Multiple Choice 46
5:22
Multiple Choice 47
6:35
Multiple Choice 48
8:02
Multiple Choice 49
10:05
Multiple Choice 50
10:26
Multiple Choice 51
11:07
Multiple Choice 52
12:01
Multiple Choice 53
12:55
Multiple Choice 54
16:12
Multiple Choice 55
18:11
Multiple Choice 56
19:45
Multiple Choice 57
20:15
Multiple Choice 58
23:28
Multiple Choice 59
24:27
Multiple Choice 60
26:45
Multiple Choice 61
29:15
AP Practice Exam: Multiple Choice, Part III

32m 50s

Intro
0:00
Multiple Choice
0:16
Multiple Choice 62
0:17
Multiple Choice 63
1:57
Multiple Choice 64
6:16
Multiple Choice 65
8:05
Multiple Choice 66
9:18
Multiple Choice 67
10:38
Multiple Choice 68
12:51
Multiple Choice 69
14:32
Multiple Choice 70
17:35
Multiple Choice 71
22:44
Multiple Choice 72
24:27
Multiple Choice 73
27:46
Multiple Choice 74
29:39
Multiple Choice 75
30:23
AP Practice Exam: Free response Part I

47m 22s

Intro
0:00
Free Response
0:15
Free Response 1: Part A
0:16
Free Response 1: Part B
4:15
Free Response 1: Part C
5:47
Free Response 1: Part D
9:20
Free Response 1: Part E. i
10:58
Free Response 1: Part E. ii
16:45
Free Response 1: Part E. iii
26:03
Free Response 2: Part A. i
31:01
Free Response 2: Part A. ii
33:38
Free Response 2: Part A. iii
35:20
Free Response 2: Part B. i
37:38
Free Response 2: Part B. ii
39:30
Free Response 2: Part B. iii
44:44
AP Practice Exam: Free Response Part II

43m 5s

Intro
0:00
Free Response
0:12
Free Response 3: Part A
0:13
Free Response 3: Part B
6:25
Free Response 3: Part C. i
11:33
Free Response 3: Part C. ii
12:02
Free Response 3: Part D
14:30
Free Response 4: Part A
21:03
Free Response 4: Part B
22:59
Free Response 4: Part C
24:33
Free Response 4: Part D
27:22
Free Response 4: Part E
28:43
Free Response 4: Part F
29:35
Free Response 4: Part G
30:15
Free Response 4: Part H
30:48
Free Response 5: Diagram
32:00
Free Response 5: Part A
34:14
Free Response 5: Part B
36:07
Free Response 5: Part C
37:45
Free Response 5: Part D
39:00
Free Response 5: Part E
40:26
AP Practice Exam: Free Response Part III

28m 36s

Intro
0:00
Free Response
0:43
Free Response 6: Part A. i
0:44
Free Response 6: Part A. ii
3:08
Free Response 6: Part A. iii
5:02
Free Response 6: Part B. i
7:11
Free Response 6: Part B. ii
9:40
Free Response 7: Part A
11:14
Free Response 7: Part B
13:45
Free Response 7: Part C
15:43
Free Response 7: Part D
16:54
Free Response 8: Part A. i
19:15
Free Response 8: Part A. ii
21:16
Free Response 8: Part B. i
23:51
Free Response 8: Part B. ii
25:07
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Lecture Comments (42)

0 answers

Post by Michelle Li on July 13, 2023

Hi Professor,

I don't understand why would we add the delta H values for example three, didn't we subtract the three equations to get to the original? May you please explain this? Thank you!

2 answers

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Thu Jul 21, 2016 6:28 PM

Post by Adel Althaqafy on July 20, 2016

Hi Prof
when you multiply the equation by 2 why change - minus to positive in the amount of the enthalpy change

2 answers

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Sun Jul 3, 2016 7:21 PM

Post by Jeffrey McNeary on June 29, 2016

at 15:40, you stated that delta H  is a state function, and 15 seconds later you stated that h is NOT a state function. If q is equivalent to delta, then how are they not the same kind of function?

4 answers

Last reply by: Kaye Lim
Mon Jul 4, 2016 5:56 PM

Post by Kaye Lim on June 8, 2016

For endothermic process, if product bonds store less amount of Energy compared to reactant's bonds (product has lower Energy than reactant), then why it takes more Energy heat to break the product bond into free elements and also into free atoms?

It confused me how the bonds in product have lower Energy in endothermic process because it is further down the graph, yet require more Energy to be broken into free atoms. Please explain what was wrong in my reasoning process.

3 answers

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Fri Jun 3, 2016 6:23 PM

Post by Tram T on May 17, 2016

Dear prof. Hovasapian,

-For endothermic reaction, I see that the bonding energy or the energy to break all the products of the reaction into free atoms is higher than the bonding energy of reactants because the Energy gap going from products to free atoms is larger than the Energy gap going from reactants to free atoms.
But I can't wrap my mind around how going from system (reactants) with lower Energy (Energy stored in the reactant bonds) to system with higher Energy releasing Energy heat. Please explain! Thank you!

2 answers

Last reply by: Jason Smith
Wed Dec 30, 2015 7:59 PM

Post by Jason Smith on December 23, 2015

Hi professor. How did you arrange the [delta E = q - P delta V] equation to get [q = delta E + P delta V]?

Like, how did you get the q isolated on one side of the equation without having to divide?

Sorry for silly question, math really isn't my strong suit :P

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Sun Sep 27, 2015 1:39 AM

Post by Gaurav Kumar on September 26, 2015

Hi Professor Hovasapian,

For examples 2 and 3 are the equations that you wrote after the equation that we were trying to reach given in the problem, or did make up those equations? For example, was N2O5 +H2O ----> 2HNO3 given in the problem for example 3 or did you make it up?

Thank you

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Tue Dec 2, 2014 2:45 AM

Post by Muhammad Ziad on November 29, 2014

Also, are the three equations in problem 3 given or do you have to come up with them on your own?

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Tue Dec 2, 2014 2:50 AM

Post by Muhammad Ziad on November 29, 2014

Thank you for this lecture. I have a question about the delta H values in example 2. Where do you get these values from? Are they supposed to be memorized or is there a table we can find the values? I'm starting to understand everything much better except getting the delta H values.

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Fri Nov 28, 2014 12:33 AM

Post by Minjae Kim on November 27, 2014

If ΔE = q + w and ΔH = q, then why is ΔH = ΔE + PΔV? Why not ΔH= = ΔE - PΔV?

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Thu May 1, 2014 9:16 PM

Post by Mark Andrews on April 20, 2014

In example 2

2S02 + O2 ----->  2SO3
To be balanced this shouldn't this be 2SO4?

1 answer

Last reply by: Andrea Baric
Sat Apr 26, 2014 9:18 PM

Post by Hyun Cho on December 22, 2013

i have a question concerning 18:31 when you are giving examples on Hess's Law.   When you tell us that S+3/2O2> SO3+change in enthalpy of -395.2KJ, is that stated in the problem or is it just something that we should know as basics of chemistry? if we should already know it, could you tell me where I can learn those kind of stuffs?

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Mon Dec 23, 2013 8:46 PM

Post by Hyun Cho on December 22, 2013

i have a question concerning 18:31 when you are giving examples on Hess's Law. When you tell us that S+3/2O2> SO3+change in enthalpy of -395.2KJ, is that stated in the problem or is it just something that we should know as basics of chemistry? if we should already know it, could you tell me where I can learn those kind of stuffs?

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Mon Oct 21, 2013 3:42 AM

Post by Cynthia Alvarez on October 21, 2013

Given: K+1/2Cl2 -> KCl   DeltaH=-437kJ
How much heat is absorbed/released when o.5moles Cl2 is formed from KCl?

Would this be the answer?: 437kJ absorbed

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Wed May 15, 2013 2:07 AM

Post by Nawaphan Jedjomnongkit on May 14, 2013

Thank you for the lecture. From what you explain about state function and did mention that q is not state function but when it comes to enthalpy, it is a state function. So am I right if I think that q normally it is not a state function but it will be only when P is constant ?

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Mon Mar 18, 2013 10:23 PM

Post by Joseph Grosse on March 18, 2013

Example 1: When 1 mole of glucose is fermented to ethanol, 67KJ of energy is released. When 7.6 g of glucose (aka ~.0422 moles) goes through fermentation the energy released is -2.8KJ.

Why would the sign of energy released switch between the two situations, when the only variable, is that of the the mass of the compound that is being fermented?

Thank you.

1 answer

Last reply by: Professor Hovasapian
Mon Jul 23, 2012 7:15 PM

Post by Marlon Kalicharan on July 22, 2012

How come you have for the 1.H2+HALF02 YIELDS H20.I am lost.Where does that come from?

0 answers

Post by NGAWANG TSERING on March 8, 2012

hi it stuck automatically at example 2 of state function

Enthalpy & Hess's Law

  • ΔH = q for constant pressure processes. ΔH is called the change in Enthalpy of a system. It is also referred to as the Heat of reaction.
  • A State Function is a thermodynamic property that does not depend on the path used to achieve a given state.
  • Enthalpy is a State Function.
  • Hess’ Law allows you to manipulate given chemical equations, so that, when you add the resulting equations, you achieve the equation desired. The Enthalpy of the desired equation is the sum of the Enthalpies of the individual equations.

Enthalpy & Hess's Law

Lecture Slides are screen-captured images of important points in the lecture. Students can download and print out these lecture slide images to do practice problems as well as take notes while watching the lecture.

  • Intro 0:00
  • Thermochemistry 1:43
    • Defining Enthalpy & Hess's Law
    • Example 1
    • State Function
    • Example 2
    • Example 3

Transcription: Enthalpy & Hess's Law

Welcome back to Educator.com; welcome back to AP Chemistry.0000

Today, we're going to continue our discussion of thermochemistry.0003

We're going to talk about enthalpy and Hess's Law.0007

I have to, before I begin...I wanted to discuss--just take a couple of minutes to talk about--thermodynamics and thermochemistry, and a lot of the terms that are sort of being thrown around, and some of the equations.0010

Back in the early...well, not early days; in the turn of the century, there is a saying about thermodynamics; a very famous thermodynamicist says this; he said, "None of us really understands thermodynamics; we just get used to it."0025

Now, of course, that is not completely true; we understand it; but to a large extent, a lot of it really is true.0037

Thermodynamics is a very, very strange thing; heat behaves in very difficult ways--very unusual ways.0043

These terms, like enthalpy and heat and energy and work, and pressure-volume...I know that a lot of that is very, very odd; it's difficult to wrap your mind around; it's difficult to sort of get a good, intuitive feeling for what is going on.0049

My recommendation for dealing with that is: don't really worry about it too much.0065

A lot of the comfort that comes from dealing with thermochemistry and thermodynamics, aside from some of the stuff like today's (it's actually not that bad)...a lot of it just comes from familiarity.0069

You will be seeing it over and over and over again, and you will be doing the problems over and over again, so that you will get more of a sense.0079

So, if you don't understand it the way you do other things, I wouldn't worry about it too much; that is just the nature of thermodynamics.0085

Again, just to throw something out there to make you put your mind at ease: it's like that for everybody.0092

With that, let's go ahead and get started.0099

OK, so let's start with a definition.0103

We're going to define enthalpy: enthalpy (which we use the symbol H for, and you will understand in a minute, when we actually equate it to heat) is equal to the energy of a system, plus the pressure of the system, times the volume of the system.0108

So, let's say I had some container of gas; it's going to have a certain energy that is associated with it; it's going to have a certain pressure that is associated with it and a certain volume that is associated with it.0132

By definition, that is the enthalpy; if I take the energy, plus the pressure, times the volume, I get the enthalpy.0142

Now, like most thermodynamic properties, we don't really know what absolute enthalpies are; the only thing we can actually measure (which is science: in science, we measure things) are changes in enthalpy.0149

So, ultimately, we are going to be concerned with ΔH; and, in fact, all of thermodynamics is going to be concerned with the Δ of some properties.0162

Later on in the course, we will talk about ΔS; we will talk about ΔG, which is free energy entropy; and H is enthalpy.0169

We are concerned more with Δ, and, a little bit later in this lesson, we will show why the Δ is important...in any case, just so you know...0177

The definition of enthalpy is the energy plus the pressure times the volume of the system.0189

Now, let's recall what we did last time: we said that the change in energy of a system is equal to q, plus the work, which was -PΔV.0194

Now, let me rearrange this; let me bring this -ΔV over to this side; q equals the change in energy, plus PΔV--now, let me just set that aside for a minute.0209

Now, let me come over here, and let me take my definition of H as equal to E, plus PV, and now I'll do ΔH.0222

Well, ΔH, which is final minus initial, equals Δ of this, which is the ΔE plus Δ of PV.0236

Well, in this particular case, if we keep the pressure constant, that means we can pull this out of the Δ; we end up having ΔH=ΔE+PΔV.0247

Notice what we have: we have that q, which is the heat that is transferred, is equal to the change in energy plus the pressure times the change in volume (constant pressure).0266

And we have that ΔH, just based on the definition, equals ΔE, plus pressure, times Δvolume.0276

These are the same; q equals ΔH at constant pressure.0282

So, this is a constant pressure situation here, OK?--at constant pressure (which is pretty much what we are doing--what we do most of our chemistry in, at a constant atmospheric pressure), q equals ΔH.0293

In other words, the enthalpy is nothing more than the heat that is transferred--the energy that flows as heat.0307

In other words, if a certain reaction takes place, and it gives off a certain amount of heat or it takes in a certain amount of heat, that heat is equal to the enthalpy.0314

So, I can talk about the enthalpy by just referring to the heat; all I have to do is deal with the heat--it happens to be the same as the enthalpy, under constant pressure conditions.0325

That is why constant pressure is really, really nice, because under those conditions, I don't have to deal with enthalpy; I just deal with the heat; they are equivalent.0335

Heat is a very easy thing to measure; you just run a reaction, and you measure how hot something gets or how cold something gets; that is your enthalpy.0343

It is a thermodynamic quantity that is related to heat; under constant pressure conditions, it is the heat--it is equivalent to the heat; so that is really nice.0351

This is the important thing to know.0362

Heat and enthalpy are equivalent in magnitude under constant pressure conditions.0366

OK, so when we talk about the enthalpy of a reaction, ΔHrxn, well, that is equivalent to the heat of the reaction.0370

We will often talk about the heat of the reaction.0380

OK, now, ΔH of the reaction is equal to...actually, you know what, no; I'm not going to...I'll save this for the next time; there is no need to confuse us with any information that we don't need right away.0392

OK, so let's just do a quick example to get a feel for what is going on--a little bit of stoichiometry.0408

Example 1: When 1 mole of C6H12O6, which is glucose, is fermented to ethanol at a constant pressure, 67 kilojoules of heat is released.0415

The system releases heat; heat is flowing out of the system; it is negative.0458

How much heat is released when 7.6 grams of glucose is fermented?0467

1 mole of glucose is fermented to ethanol at constant pressure; 67 kilojoules of heat is released--exothermic.0490

The enthalpy is negative; now heat and enthalpy is the same--constant pressure.0499

How much heat is released when 7.6 grams of glucose is fermented?0505

OK, so let's write out what this looks like to get a sense of how we sort of start these problems, and what it looks like, notationally, for a chemist.0509

So, C6H12O6 is fermented to 2 C2H5OH (ethanol--this is regular drinking alcohol), plus carbon dioxide gas.0518

And we often write the ΔH over here as -67 kilojoules; so we see that heat is released; ΔH is negative; it is an exothermic process.0534

That is what it means: exothermic--ΔH is negative; ΔH is negative--it is exothermic; it is giving off heat, which means, in addition to this product and this product, one of the other products is that much heat.0543

That is why we write it; imagine heat as that third product that also comes out of the reaction.0556

This heat comes from the bonds in the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; that is where it is coming from.0563

OK, let's draw a little energy diagram, so you see what is going on here.0569

C6H12O6: this is H, enthalpy (heat at constant pressure), and this is just the reaction coordinate.0576

The reaction coordinate just means that the reaction is proceeding in that direction.0588

Well, there are some...here we have the C2H5OH, ethanol, plus our CO2.0594

Now, what this means--this -67 kilojoules--as it turns out, thermodynamically, the reactants--there is more heat in these bonds; when going from glucose to ethanol as CO2, the amount of energy in these bonds is actually 67 kilojoules less.0605

So, this difference right here, from this point to this point, is the 67 kilojoules.0627

Because, again, energy cannot be created or destroyed, the energy in these bonds is returned into the energy of these bonds.0634

But now, I have an excess amount of energy; what am I going to do with it?--well, the reaction just releases it as heat.0642

That is what this says; it is going to a lower heat--this excess heat is what is given off.0647

That is why it is -67; this is what it actually looks like.0655

The products are thermodynamically at a lower energy.0658

OK, so let's go ahead and calculate: well, C6H12O6 is 180 grams per mole; we have 7.6 grams of it, times 1 mole--180 grams; that gives us 0.0422 mol, and I hope that I did my arithmetic correctly.0663

Well, I have 0.0422 mol, and it is telling me that it releases 67 kilojoules per mole (that is what the problem says).0694

It is a simple arithmetic problem.0705

-2.8 kilojoules of heat is released.0708

2,800 Joules of heat is released with 7.6 grams of glucose.0723

7.6 grams of glucose is not very much; it's a handful--not even a handful; it is 2,800 Joules; that is a lot of heat.0729

There is a lot of heat in those bonds; that is why the human body metabolizes glucose--it breaks it down, not into alcohol and CO2--it breaks it down completely into carbon dioxide and water, and all of the energy that is released--the body uses that energy to produce a molecule called adenosine triphosphate, and it is the adenosine triphosphate that runs the body.0743

That is our energy currency, and it all comes from the energy that is stored in the bonds of C6H12O6.0767

Well, just 7.6 grams produces 2,800 kilojoules of energy!0773

You can imagine the amount of glucose we actually take in, in the form of carbohydrates and other things; the body requires a lot of energy to run.0778

All right, now let's talk about something called a state function.0790

Let me...all right, let's define a state function.0798

A state function is a property (you could call it a state property; I don't know why they call it a state function, but it is a property) that does not depend on the path taken to achieve that state.0803

OK, so let's say I have something here and something there; these are two states; I can get from this state to this state--I can either go this way, directly, or I can go this way and come back; I can go this way, this way, this way, this way, this way, this way.0846

Now, as it turns out, there are certain properties that are not state functions, like heat and work.0862

So, for example, if I went from here to here, I would have to do a certain amount of work.0872

Clearly, if I went from here to here to here to here to here to here, I am doing more work.0876

But, as it turns out, energy (which, as we said, is equal to heat plus work, neither of which is a state function)--as it turns out, energy is a state function.0880

As it turns out, it doesn't matter how I get to the final state--all that matters is where I started and where I ended up.0894

That is why we are concerned with ΔS: ΔH, ΔG--those are state functions; enthalpy is another state function.0900

So, we said that enthalpy is equal to the change in energy, plus the pressure, times the change in volume, right?0907

Well, this is a state function; pressure is a state function--it doesn't matter how I get there; at a certain point, and at the pressure that I start and end up with, it is just a certain pressure; it doesn't matter how I get there.0916

Volume: it doesn't matter how I go from 3 liters to 5 liters; I can go up to 18 liters, drop down to .1 liter, and then go up to 5 liters; I have still just gone from 3 to 5--the net effect is the same.0929

So, ΔH is also a state function.0942

It is a state function because it is the sum of two state functions.0944

Energy is a state function despite the fact that neither of these is a state function.0948

This is also quite extraordinary, that that is the case.0953

OK, so as far as chemistry is concerned, now: chemistry--if we start with certain reactants, and we want to end up with certain products, well, as far as the enthalpy is concerned, it doesn't matter how I get there.0957

I can get there in 2 steps; 15 steps; 147 steps.0974

Now, yes, there are areas of chemistry where we are concerned about the steps, but as far as a thermodynamicist is concerned, all he cares about is the enthalpy at the beginning and the enthalpy at the end.0978

It is a state function; it doesn't matter how you get there; all that matters is that you get there.0988

It is the two states that matter; that is all that matters.0993

Because of that, we can actually take a reaction that we are interested in, and perform it, and if we want to find the enthalpy of that reaction, well, if we have enthalpies of other reactions that we can use to get to our final reaction, we get our final enthalpy.0996

OK, so now, this is the idea of Hess's Law.1014

And, rather than talking about it or writing about it, the best thing to do is just do a problem, and of course, it will make sense.1021

So, let me write out Hess's Law here.1026

Well, I won't write it out; we'll just do an example, and it will make sense.1032

OK, we want to find the ΔH for the reaction of sulfur, plus oxygen gas, going to sulfur dioxide gas.1036

In other words, there is a certain heat of reaction associated with this; either it absorbs heat to create SO2, or in the process of creating SO2, it releases heat.1059

I want to find the enthalpy--the heat of the reaction.1069

Well, how do I do that?1072

OK, so we want to find ΔH for the reaction; well, as it turns out, we just happen to know that we have a couple of reactions at our disposal.1074

We know that, if I take sulfur plus three-halves oxygen gas, in the process of creating sulfur trioxide gas, we happen to know that the ΔH of that is -395.2 kilojoules.1088

We also happen to know that sulfur dioxide gas, 2 moles of that, plus oxygen gas, goes to 2 sulfur trioxide gas, and we happen to know that the ΔH of that equals -198.2 kilojoules.1110

So, we have this reaction that we know the ΔH for; we have this reaction that we know the ΔH for.1134

Hess's Law says it doesn't matter how we get to our final reaction, if we can come up (oops, no, we don't want these stray lines here) with a way of manipulating these equations (switching them, multiplying them by coefficients, a lot like you do for linear equations in linear algebra or algebra courses that you have taken).1140

If we can fiddle around with them and add the equations to come up with a final equation--this one that we want--well, we will just add the ΔHs, and we will get the final enthalpy of the reaction, because again, ΔH is a state function; it doesn't matter how you get there, as long as you get there.1166

So, let's see what we are going to do.1184

So, how can I fiddle with these equations in order that, when I add them vertically, I end up with this equation?1186

OK, well, let's see; let's reverse...let's see, what can I do?1194

I am trying to create SO2 gas; so notice that SO2 here is on the right-hand side, but in these equations, SO3 is on the right-hand side.1201

The only equation that has SO2 in it is over here; I want to reverse it, and there is one SO2 here, but there are 2 SO2, so I am going to flip equation 2, and I'm going to divide it by 2.1212

OK, so let me...actually, let me rewrite everything again, so that we have it on one page.1228

We have S + O2 going to SO2; that is the reaction that we want; and we are given S + 3/2 O2 goes to SO3; ΔH equals -395.2 kilojoules.1241

Our second equation (we'll call that #1) is 2 sulfur dioxide gas, plus O2, goes to 2 SO3, and the ΔH for that is -198.2 kilojoules.1262

OK, so we said we want this equation from these equations.1279

We are going to flip this equation, #2; so, we are going to reverse #2 and divide it by 2.1284

When we reverse it and divide it by 2, this 2 SO3 comes to the left, and it ends up becoming just SO3; this 2 SO2 ends up on the right, but becomes SO2; and this O2 also ends up on the right, but it becomes 1/2 O2.1299

Now, what happens to the ΔH?--well, exactly what you think.1315

If you flip a reaction--if you flip an equation--you change the sign of ΔH; if you divide an equation by 2, you divide the ΔH by 2.1318

So now, the ΔH is no longer -198; it is going to equal +99.1 kilojoules.1327

And now, we leave the...here, our other equation is S + 3/2 O2 goes to SO3, so S is on the left--there is one S on the left--so let's leave that one alone.1337

We have S + 3/2 O2 going to SO3; that ΔH stays the same: -395.2 kilojoules.1351

Now, we just add straight down.1367

Everything that is on both sides--if there is something on the left and something on the right, they cancel.1369

SO3 on the left; SO3 on the right; it cancels.1375

S comes down; that is taken care of.1379

I have 3/2 O2 on the left; I have 1/2 O2 on the right; 3/2 minus 1/2 is equal to...well, there you go: O2 (two halves)...+ O2.1383

O2 is taken care of; now, the only thing left is the SO2.1400

There you go; I have the final equation that I wanted by messing around with the equations for which I did have information.1405

Now, all I do is: I just add the ΔHs.1413

When I add the ΔHs: +99.1, minus 395.2; we get -296.1 kilojoules.1416

I used reactions that I knew, manipulated the equations, made the appropriate changes to the enthalpy, and I added straight down, added straight down; now I have the enthalpy for this reaction.1426

This is Hess's Law; I can use reactions that I do know to find a reaction that I want.1439

OK, let's do another example here.1447

Let's do this on a new page.1454

Calculate the ΔH for the synthesis (which means formation) of di-nitrogen pentoxide gas, N2O5, from its elements.1461

OK, elements--so, the reaction that we want is nitrogen gas, plus oxygen gas, goes to N2O5 gas.1489

Now, we have to balance this: so, we have 5 and 2, so we'll put a 5 here; we'll put a 2 here.1505

We'll put a 2 here; now it's balanced.1512

This is the equation that we want; OK, now here are the equations that we have at our disposal.1515

Equation #1: we have H2 + 1/2 O2 goes to H2O; the ΔH of that is equal to -285.8 kilojoules.1521

Our second equation is: N2O5 + H2O goes to 2 HNO3, which is nitric acid; the ΔH of that is -76.6; exothermic, exothermic.1540

3: we have 1/2 N2 + 3/2 O2 + 1/2 H2 goes to HNO3; the ΔH of this is equal to -174.1 kilojoules.1565

So, our task is to take these three equations, manipulate them by multiplying by coefficients, reversing them, and then adding them straight down and arranging them in such a way so that, when they add, they add to the final equation.1585

OK, so let's see what we have; what can we do?1604

I notice I have N2O5 on the right, and here I have N2O5 on the left, so let me just leave that one alone for now.1608

Let me see: I have 2 N2 on the left, 5 O2; I have 2 N2, and the only equation here that has N2 in it is this one, so I'm going to multiply equation #3 by 4.1623

So, multiply #3 by 4, and what I end up with, when I multiply the third equation by 4--I get 2 N2 + 6 O2 + 2 H2 goes to 4 HNO3, and the ΔH also gets multiplied by 4.1638

Negative...so this is multiplied by 4 minus 696.4 kilojoules; so whatever I do to the equation, I do the same thing to the enthalpy.1673

OK, now let's see what I have; HNO3...I have 4 HNO3, but I don't have any HNO3 here, so I need 4 HNO3s on the left.1683

I have 2 HNO3s here, so I'm going to flip this equation and multiply it by w.1695

So, we'll flip 2 and multiply by 2.1699

When I flip this and multiply by 2, I get 4 HNO3 goes to 2 N2O5 + 2 H2O, and now the ΔH for this...I have flipped it, and I have multiplied it by 2, so now this is a positive 153.2 kilojoules.1711

Now, #1--let me see: #1 equation: H2; I have...what do I have?...I have 2 H2s on the left; I have an H2 here; I need to cancel the H2s.1741

I have 2 H2Os on the right; I have an H2O on the right here; so I have used equation 3 and used equation 2; I need to get this on the left, and I need to multiply it by 2, so I'll do the same thing.1755

I'll flip #1 and multiply by 2, and I end up with the following equation.1765

I get 2 H2O goes to 2 H2 + O2; and again, the ΔH is going to be +571.6 kilojoules.1776

And now, I should end up with what I have; so let me see here; let me...we are concerned with this equation, this equation, and this equation; so let's see what cancels.1797

H2O; 2 H2O, 2 H2O; 2 H2, 2 H2, right?--this is on the left of the arrow; this is on the right of the arrow.1815

They are on top of each other, but it is where they are on as far as the arrows are concerned.1824

I have 4 HNO3, 4 HNO3; 2 N2, so I'll bring that down; that takes care of the 2 N2.1830

I have 6 oxygens on the left; I have 1 oxygen on the right; so, 6 minus the 1 leaves 5 oxygens on the left.1841

So, that is taken care of and that is taken care of; now, the only thing left is the 2 N2O5, which is on the right, so I am not adding it.1853

That is on the right-hand side of the arrow; so I get 2 N2O5, which is exactly what we want: 2 N2 + 5 O2 goes to 2 N2O5, exactly what we found.1866

Now, let's just add the ΔHs straight down, and when we add them, we end up with 28.4; again, you might want to check my arithmetic; I'm notorious for bad arithmetic.1880

So, this reaction: nitrogen gas plus oxygen gas to form di-nitrogen pentoxide: it is positive 28.4 kilojoules, so this is endothermic.1893

That means, in order for this reaction to go forward, I actually have to add heat to it.1906

Or, if I leave it alone, and there are other circumstances where there is something happening--there is enough heat that it can pull from the surroundings--it will pull that heat from the surroundings in order to make this go.1911

So, there you have it--Hess's Law.1924

We want to find the enthalpy, the heat of a given reaction; well, if we have other reactions at our disposal that we know the heat for, and we can rearrange those equations in a certain way--we can fiddle with the enthalpies appropriately--add the equations; we will get the equation that we are looking for, and we will get the enthalpy of that equation.1926

OK, thank you for joining us today at Educator.com for the discussion of enthalpy.1947

We will see you next time; goodbye.1953

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